Module 5 - Criminal Profiling

Lesson 3 - Geographic Profiling

Geographical Profiling

Geographic Profiling History

	Criminal profiling is the “who”; geographic profiling is the “where”. History Since the methodology of geographical profiling began in the early 1990s, it has become an increasingly popular avenue of investigation in complex crimes involving serial offenders. It has been used in numerous investigations in North America and Europe in recent years. Although the use of spatial analysis methods in police investigations goes back many years (think of pushpins stuck in large maps), the formalized process commonly referred to as geographic profiling originated in research conducted at the School of Criminology of Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada, in 1989. Its theoretical foundation is rooted in environmental criminology, routine activity theory, and rational choice theory. Advances in crime-pattern theory associated with the work of other researchers at Simon Fraser University led to the search for an effective predictive model of crime. Research focused on the theory that offenders maintained buffer zones around their homes in which they avoided committing crimes to protect their anonymity. A second theory, commonly referred to as distance decay, is a mathematical function that describes the path of travel taken by offenders as they search for criminal opportunities. This theory suggests that offenders are not interested in travelling long distances to commit crimes unless they are attempting to achieve a larger potential payoff. In other words, offenders are attracted by the ‘pull’ of a potential target, but are ‘pushed’ from their own neighbourhood for fear of being identified by someone who knows them. The successful development of an algorithm that supported geographic profiling is largely the work of Dr. D. Kim Rossmo, who established its basic principles while completing his Ph.D. in Criminology at Simon Fraser University. Rossmo was a police officer at that time, working as a foot patrol officer in downtown Vancouver at night and attending classes during the day. In 1991, Rossmo created a mathematical formula that expresses two basic principles: least effort—the principle that humans pursue courses of action only after performing cost-benefit analyses in their minds criminal opportunity—the correlation between familiarity and opportunity For example, a crime can occur only when a ‘motivated’ offender encounters a defenceless victim in the absence of a guardian figure such as police, security, or even other people. In other words, criminal behaviour results from a decision-making process based on a balance between the probability of being caught and the amount of effort that is necessary to commit a crime. Rossmo created an equation and turned into an algorithm. This is the basis of a software program called Rigel and drives the analytical work supporting geographic profiling. After completing his PhD in 1995, Rossmo was transferred to a full-time geographic profiling unit within the Vancouver Police Department, the first of its kind in North America. This approach was slow to catch on, but it is now used in several U.S., Canadian, British, and European law enforcement agencies. Originally designed for violent crime investigations, it is used also in cases of repeat property crime. Dr. Rossmo has since left the Vancouver Police Department. He is now a Research Professor at the Texas State University Center for Geospatial Intelligence and Investigation where he works full-time on geographic profiling. Russell Johnson, the Bedroom Strangler, is a serial killer who murdered 7 women and attacked 17 other women in the late 1970s in Ontario. He was found not guilty of murder by reason of insanity in 1978 and is now serving time at a maximum-security mental health centre in Ontario. Johnson was married and had one child at the time of his arrest. He worked in an auto factory during the day and as a bouncer at night. Johnson watched his victims sleep for hours before he attacked them. He climbed as high as 13 storeys on the side of a building to attack his victims.

Criminal profiling is the “who”; geographic profiling is the “where”.

History

Since the methodology of geographical profiling began in the early 1990s, it has become an increasingly popular avenue of investigation in complex crimes involving serial offenders. It has been used in numerous investigations in North America and Europe in recent years. Although the use of spatial analysis methods in police investigations goes back many years (think of pushpins stuck in large maps), the formalized process commonly referred to as geographic profiling originated in research conducted at the School of Criminology of Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada, in 1989. Its theoretical foundation is rooted in environmental criminology, routine activity theory, and rational choice theory. Advances in crime-pattern theory associated with the work of other researchers at Simon Fraser University led to the search for an effective predictive model of crime.

Research focused on the theory that offenders maintained buffer zones around their homes in which they avoided committing crimes to protect their anonymity. A second theory, commonly referred to as distance decay, is a mathematical function that describes the path of travel taken by offenders as they search for criminal opportunities. This theory suggests that offenders are not interested in travelling long distances to commit crimes unless they are attempting to achieve a larger potential payoff. In other words, offenders are attracted by the ‘pull’ of a potential target, but are ‘pushed’ from their own neighbourhood for fear of being identified by someone who knows them.

The successful development of an algorithm that supported geographic profiling is largely the work of Dr. D. Kim Rossmo, who established its basic principles while completing his Ph.D. in Criminology at Simon Fraser University. Rossmo was a police officer at that time, working as a foot patrol officer in downtown Vancouver at night and attending classes during the day. In 1991, Rossmo created a mathematical formula that expresses two basic principles:

least effort—the principle that humans pursue courses of action only after performing cost-benefit analyses in their minds
criminal opportunity—the correlation between familiarity and opportunity

For example, a crime can occur only when a ‘motivated’ offender encounters a defenceless victim in the absence of a guardian figure such as police, security, or even other people. In other words, criminal behaviour results from a decision-making process based on a balance between the probability of being caught and the amount of effort that is necessary to commit a crime.

Rossmo created an equation and turned into an algorithm. This is the basis of a software program called Rigel and drives the analytical work supporting geographic profiling.

After completing his PhD in 1995, Rossmo was transferred to a full-time geographic profiling unit within the Vancouver Police Department, the first of its kind in North America. This approach was slow to catch on, but it is now used in several U.S., Canadian, British, and European law enforcement agencies. Originally designed for violent crime investigations, it is used also in cases of repeat property crime.

Dr. Rossmo has since left the Vancouver Police Department. He is now a Research Professor at the Texas State University Center for Geospatial Intelligence and Investigation where he works full-time on geographic profiling.

Russell Johnson, the Bedroom Strangler, is a serial killer who murdered 7 women and attacked 17 other women in the late 1970s in Ontario. He was found not guilty of murder by reason of insanity in 1978 and is now serving time at a maximum-security mental health centre in Ontario.

Johnson was married and had one child at the time of his arrest. He worked in an auto factory during the day and as a bouncer at night. Johnson watched his victims sleep for hours before he attacked them. He climbed as high as 13 storeys on the side of a building to attack his victims.

Glossary Term: Cost-Benefit Analyses

An approach whereby one seeks to identify and quantify the benefits and the costs imposed

Glossary Term: Familiarity

Personal knowledge or information about someone or something

Glossary Term: Probability

A measure of the likelihood some event will occur

Glossary Term: Algorithm

An organized procedure for performing a given type of calculation or solving a given type of mathematical problem

Glossary Term: Analytical

A problem-solving approach that is detailed

After studying Lesson 3, you should be able to…

explain the use and purpose of a subset of criminal profiling: geographic profiling
analyze or create a geographic profile of a criminal suspect using mock crime scene data