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Unit 1 - Forest Management

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Course: Issues & Trends in Forestry [1cr] - AB Ed copy 1
Book: Unit 1 - Forest Management
Printed by: Guest user
Date: Sunday, 14 September 2025, 12:43 AM

Table of contents

Information


  • Unit 1, Forest Management, is designed to take approximately 3 hours.
  • You have the following tasks and assignments to complete in this unit.
    • Read all Unit 1 course material and associated videos, publications, etc.
    • Complete 1.1 Quiz with a mark of 50% or higher.


Learning Objectives

After completing this unit, you will be able to:
  • define consumptive and non-consumptive forest use.
  • describe past and present trends in forest use.
  • describe the positive and negative effects of forest industry development.

Introduction


Image Source: Unsplash
Have you taken a walk in the forest, perhaps gone camping or even quadding in one of Alberta’s beautiful forested areas?

If so, do you think about how Alberta’s forests appear to be plentiful and thriving?

As you are enjoying the forest, you probably do not think about how it is possible that the forest is maintained for you to continue to enjoy.

Now think about where the paper comes from that you use to print from your computer or where the framing materials came from to build your house.

How often, when travelling, do you see a truck hauling a load of logs?

Thinking about these things, you might have a concern about how Alberta's forests are maintained and how we ensure that there will be enough trees to meet all our future needs.

Image Source: Pixabay

In Unit 1, you will discover some of the current issues in forest management in Alberta, Canada, and the world.

Consumptive and Non-Consumptive Forest Use

In the introduction to this unit, we touched on the logging trucks carrying the harvested trees to their destination, to be made into things such as lumber, newsprint, tissues, paper products, etc.

Consumptive use value of trees is when trees are harvested and turned into consumer products. Their value can easily be calculated because the trees are bought and sold. Another way to look at consumptive use – it is anything that requires a change in the forests, such as oil and gas exploration, mining, road building, and/or harvesting.

Image Source: Pixabay


Image Source: Pixabay
Forests are valuable in ways that are not obvious, but just as important. Forests provide us with many benefits, such as:

  • slowing or preventing erosion
  • filtering water
  • producing oxygen
  • removing carbon dioxide from the air
  • creating shade
  • tourism
  • enjoying outdoor activities, such as camping and hiking

These benefits are referred to as the non-consumptive use of trees; they are valuable, but difficult to put a price on. Non-consumptive use of forest resources means that our forest use does not affect any major change to the forest.



Image Sources: Pixabay, Pexels, Unsplash

Past Trends

In order to look at present and future trends in the consumptive and non-consumptive use of forests, it is important to look at the past use. The history of Canada’s forest management is shown in the graph below; each time period also indicates a specific concept that emerged. The concept, for each era, grew from such things as: a different or increasing population, growing demands on the forest, changing needs of society, technological changes and changes in society’s values.

It is important to look at the evolution of the management of Canada’s forests; from this information, governments can look at ways to improve current systems of forest management.

 

Forest Management Paradigms – with permission from the Canadian Institute of Forestry/Institut forestier du Canada

 


The different forest management paradigms or models, are explained in more detail below.

Click each collapsible row to view more information.


Image Source: Reshot
  • Pre-1600 to 1800 was known as the Subsistence period.
  • Approximately 300 000 to 500 000 Indigenous peoples used the forests for their livelihood.
  • With the arrival of the European settlers (1700 to 1800), the forest was cleared for agriculture and lumber production.

Image Source: Pixabay
  • 1800 to 1900 was known as the Exploitation period.
  • In the early 1800’s the forest was cleared for timber; there was no thought of regeneration or replenishing the forest.
  • The positive of this harvesting is that it was done on a small scale.
Image Source: Canadian Museum of History
  • 1900 to 1960 was known as the Sustained Yield Management period.
  • The pulp and paper industry grew; this required a large, secure timber supply.
  • Both eastern Canada and British Columbia were establishing pulp and paper mills.
  • The provinces would allocate the wood supply from large areas of Crown forest.
  • There was a requirement that companies practice Sustained Yield Management.
  • This requirement included forest inventories, growth calculations and long-term planning.

Image Source: Pixabay
  • 1960 to 1975 was known as the Multiple-Use Management period.
  • Canadians wanted to use the forests for outdoor recreation.
  • The public’s needs had to be considered, so the Canadian government implemented changes to forest management to accommodate these needs.


Image Source: Pixabay
  • The early 1970's started the period called Integrated Forest Resource Management.
  • During this time, other forest values were considered in the forest management planning process.
  • The forest values that were considered included factors such as wildlife, fisheries, recreational use, old growth, and impacts on the forest landscape.

Present Trends

In 1985, the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (CCFM) was established; this became a platform for each province’s governments to exchange information and work together on all forestry-related matters. Comprised of federal, provincial, and territorial ministers, promoting forest management in Canada would now be done on a collaborative basis, rather than on an individual provincial basis.

As part of the plan to ensure that Canada remains a world leader in sustainable forest management and with input from Canadians, the CCFM has published A Shared Vision for Forests in Canada: Toward 2030.

 

 

  

Video courtesy of Canadian Council of Forest Ministers

 


Canada’s commitment to sustainable forest management, not only affects our country’s forests, but those on a global level. Canada is responsible for 9% of the world’s forests, and is considered a world leader in managing and sustaining forests. In 1994, the Montreal Process was established and Canada became a founding member of this group. The Montreal Process established seven criteria and 54 indicators for the member countries to follow as a way of progressing toward sustainable forest management.


Forest Facts

Made in Forests: from forests' products to the fashion industry. Watch this video on sustainable fashion and the connection to the forest.

Positive Effects of Forest Industry on People

We may not realize it, but forests play an important role in our lives, even if we are not directly involved in the forest industry. In Alberta and Canada, and throughout the world, this role may be in the form of employment in the Forest Industry. In 2017, the forest industry directly employed about 209 940 people across Canada. These people in turn support their own families, as well as businesses and local infrastructures like hospitals and schools by shopping and paying taxes.

Including Canadians, over 12.7 million people around the world are employed in the forest and logging industry. Almost 80% of these people live in Asia. Like Canadians, the income generated by these workers is put back into their local economies.

It is important to remember that not all forest-related industries include the harvesting of wood. Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPS) include the gathering and harvesting of fruit and nuts and other non-wood products. For example, in the country of Sahel, the shea nut is particularly important; it is exported all over the world for use in candy making and moisturizers. In Canada there is a thriving mushroom picking industry.
Image Source: Pixabay

Negative Effects of Forest Industry on People

We learned that the forest industry provides income to millions of people around the world, but there are also 2.6 billion forest-dependent people. These people live in the forests, which provide food, shelter, and medicine. Forests are also a place of recreation for some, and have spiritual significance for others.

Click each collapsible row to view more information.


Image Source: Pexels
Forests not only provide lumber to make homes, but are home to many people. The Yanomami in Brazil live without outside influence from the rest of the world; they would be considered "uncontacted" because of their isolation from the larger world community. They are completely dependent on the forest in which they live to provide all of their needs. As industry expands into forests, the homes of forest-dependent peoples may be lost.

Image Source: Pixabay
Harvesting food from the forest is not only an industry, but, as already noted, many people depend on the forest for food. About one-third of the world’s population is forest-dependent. They rely on the forest for food, water, shelter and income through hunting, trapping, fishing and harvesting the fruits, nuts and mushrooms. Others may use the resources forests provide to subsidise their household groceries; resources that would be removed through logging.

Image Source: Pexels
Forests are the “medicine cabinets of the world”. It is estimated that 70% to 80% of people worldwide rely on traditional medicines. Trees, plants, and even insects are, or may be, a potential source of medicine. Approximately 10% of today’s drugs are derived from tropical medicinal plants, including quinine, curare (a muscle relaxant), and a number of steroids. Around 3000 plants have anti-cancer properties, and 70% of these are found in tropical forests. In Canada's Boreal Forest, First Nation Peoples traditionally used 546 medicinal plants to treat approximately 28 different diseases and disorders.

There are concerns about the possible extinction of natural medicines currently used, and not yet discovered, because of logging, deforestation and the loss of traditional Indigenous culture and knowledge throughout the world.
Indigenous peoples not only use the forests as a source of medicine but also for spiritual purposes. Some Indigenous Peoples maintain their connection to the land by hunting and fishing, as well as using traditional fields, berry or herb patches, and medicines. Many feel a deep connection to the forest and land—they are connected to the forest, the earth, and everything in it. Traditional knowledge, languages, cultural practices, and oral traditions are all connected to the land. Specific areas are considered sacred sites for ceremonies and honouring ancestors. In Canada, the logging industry works closely with First Nation groups to ensure that traditional and sacred grounds are respected. In other parts of the world, Indigenous Peoples are often not consulted and traditional areas are lost.
Forests also provide a place for people to enjoy recreational activities such as hiking, camping and ATV trips. Spending time outdoors in the natural environment is good for our mental and physical health. Forestry reduces natural areas for people to reconnect with, or through, nature.

Forest Facts

A popular Japanese practice called shinrin-yoku “forest bathing”, is time spent in natural settings just relaxing and enjoying the sights, sounds, and scents of the forest – in North America this is called “Eco-therapy”.



In summary, the forest industry employs thousands of people throughout the world; at the same time the forest is home to many people.


Image Sources: Pixabay, Pexels, Unsplash

Effects of Forest Development on Industry

We learned that the production of lumber is not the only forest industry. In addition to Non-Wood Forest Product (NWFPS) Industries other resource based industries also use forests.
Image Source: Pixabay


Positive Effects of Forest Development on Industry


Logging often aids other resource-based industries. Logging clears areas for gas and oil pipelines, mine sites, and expanding agriculture. The roads used by the logging trucks are also used by these other industries, as well as NWFPS to move people, equipment and products.


Forest Facts

Tagus, also known as vegetable ivory, palm ivory, or jarina, is a NWFP that has impacted the illegal ivory industry. There is an increasing demand for Netsukes (small ivory carving of high value) from the growing Chinese middle class. Netsukes, because of their small size, can be carved from tagus, which is “ivory like” in weight and feel when dried. Vegetable ivory positively impacts local economies where ivory nut palm trees grow. For example, in the South American Rainforest people can harvest tagus nuts instead of cutting down trees for farming; and in Sub-Saharan Africa, nuts from the real-fan palm can be collected as an alternative to poaching elephants.

Image Source: Unsplash


Negative Effects of Forest Development on Industry


Trees that produce nuts and berries can also be harvested for wood, so at times the logging industry and the NFWPS industry are in direct competition with one another; and although logging creates roads for tourists, it can also negatively impact the pristine views tourists are after.

Here in Alberta, the Bragg Creek and Kananaskis Outdoor Recreational Society argues that logging will hurt tourism, which produces more revenue and has a less negative impact on the environment. Eco-tourism in British Columbia, especially in old-growth forests, plays a role in the economy and there are pressures on governments to make sure that forests are protected for eco-tourism; at the same time, the governments are also pressured by logging companies.

In many parts of the world, there is a push to increase eco-tourism as an alternative to logging. For example, in Indonesia’s tropical forest many forest-dependent peoples turned to illegal poaching and illegal logging to earn a living. At the same time, they felt they were dishonouring their culture and ancient traditions. The European Outdoor Conservation Association (EOCA) sponsored a project in four villages that trained these individuals and their families in biocultural diversity, hospitality and conservation management. The EOCA also helped develop trails and adventure activities. The project was successful. Poaching and illegal tree harvesting numbers decreased while tourism substantially increased. The villages then took steps to plant cacao and mango trees in areas that had been previously logged and started a fish conservation project.



In conclusion, logging aids other industries by developing roads that are used to move people, equipment, and products. At the same time, logging may directly compete with other industries, or negatively impact them through the harvesting of trees.

Positive Effects of Forest Development on the Environment

The forest industry has both positive and negative effects on the environment. On the positive side, the harvesting of trees helps control diseases, insects, and invasive species. Logging may also improve habitats for many species and maintain forest health.


Disease and Insects


Thousands of diseases and species of insects exist in Canada’s forests. Native insects and diseases, (ones that are supposed to be there), play an important role in the natural food webs and nutrient cycles, helping to maintain the forest's overall health. When native diseases or insects damage the forest it is considered helpful because they are creating conditions that promote forest renewal and growth as the dead trees fall and rot—creating food and shelter for animals and returning their nutrients to the soil.

Forest Facts

Mountain pine beetle typically kills the largest and oldest trees, leaving room for younger trees to grow. Normally, healthy trees are able to suppress an attack by producing a toxic resin, however, the trees' natural defenses can be overwhelmed by too many beetles, as was the case in the early 1990’s in British Columbia affecting more than 18 million hectares of forest.

Through logging and burning of infected areas, Alberta has managed to prevent the spread. For more information about the mountain pine beetle in Alberta, see Alberta Forest Products Association.

When a major outbreak of a native disease or insect gets out of control; logging can help reduce the negative impact. This graph shows the natural cycle of the mountain pine beetle, forest tent caterpillar, and spruce budworm.
Graph source: Minister of Natural Resources 2019


Controlling Forest Invasive Alien Species (FIAS)


Just as important as controlling insects and disease, logging can help control the impact of Forest Invasive Alien Species (FIAS). These are species that are not native to a region and have a negative impact on the ecosystem. Some alien species attack the native species while others compete with them. Many FIAS do not have natural predators in the forests they enter. In Quebec, Canada between 1945 and 1965, over 600 000 elm were destroyed to prevent the spread of Dutch elm disease. Currently, there are over 80 alien insects or diseases in Canada, some of which have been extremely destructive to Canada’s forests. Those in the logging industry are often the first to identify an invasive species and report it to the Canadian Forest Service of Natural Resources Canada and Environment Canada.






Image Source: Pixabay

Logging creates open meadow space for grazing animals like deer and moose.

 


Negative Effects of Forest Development on the Environment

Logging can negatively affect forest species and the water and carbon cycles.

Click each collapsible row to view more information.


Image Source: FreeImages
Species diversification can be negatively affected when their natural habitat and food sources are removed. When an area is logged, the seedlings that are planted are usually one species, removing the variety of the forest, making it less habitable to many animals. In most parts of Canada, this type of monoculture planting does not happen as forest industries are required by law to plant, or seed the same species that are harvested.

The genetic traits of animal species are also impacted when large areas of forests are removed, as many animals will not cross logged areas. This not only restricts access to food, but also the ability of animals to pass on traits that could strengthen their species. It is concerning that animals residing in certain areas may become extinct, possibly even before their species is discovered.
Click image to enlarge.
With permission from the Canadian Institute of Forestry / Institut forestier du Canada.
Trees contribute to the water cycle through transpiration, this happens when water vapours evaporate from the leaves into the atmosphere. The evaporated water creates clouds which release the moisture in the form of rain or snow. The water on the ground is then drawn up through the roots, purifying and circulating the water.

At the same time, trees protect soil from erosion by slowing the rain before it hits the ground and holding the soil with their roots. When an area is logged, trees cannot keep streams and rivers cool for animals and they cannot protect the area from landslides caused by erosion.

There are laws in place in Canada to prevent harvesting in a way that causes erosion and deterioration of water sources.
Click image to enlarge.
With permission from the Canadian Institute of Forestry / Institut forestier du Canada.
Trees can be carbon sinks or carbon sources. In the carbon cycle trees take-up carbon dioxide and release oxygen, acting as a carbon sink. Since carbon is one of the greenhouse gasses that prevents heat from escaping Earth’s atmosphere, having it trapped by forests helps maintain the earth’s climate, preventing climate change. When a tree is cut down it no longer takes in carbon, and if it is burned for fuel that carbon is released back into the atmosphere, more quickly than it would if it just decomposed in the forest, making it a carbon source.


Forests are huge carbon filtration and storage systems. Tropical rainforests absorb more CO2 than boreal forests. The Amazon rainforest absorbs about 2 billion tonnes of the world's CO2 emissions annually; but Canada’s boreal forests are doing their part to keep our atmosphere clean too, absorbing about 117 million tonnes of carbon per year.


Forest Facts

Studies done on logging roads, biodiversity, and species management have found that as roads and trails are built, they not only increase human traffic to an area, but they are also used by animals to access new areas. Consequently, some species that prefer more isolation struggle with increased traffic, competitors for food and predators. Caribou are an example of species greatly impacted by industry. Roads built and used for logging, gas and oil, and mining, have disrupted migration routes, impacted breeding grounds, and allowed predators easier access to areas in which the caribou live.


In conclusion, properly managed logging can improve forest health by reducing pests, removing disease, preventing fire and providing space for some animals. In contrast, logging may negatively impact the environment by reducing forest biodiversity, removing trees from both the water and carbon cycle, and disturbing migration routes and breeding grounds.

1.1 Assignment

Invasive Species

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1.1 Assignment

1.1 Quiz

Forest Management

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1.1 Quiz