Module 2 - Law Enforcement Equipment and Police Canines

Module Overview

Catching “bad guys” involves elements of danger and risk. Therefore, police officers carry various equipment to protect themselves and the public. Over the years, science has been involved, both intentionally and unintentionally, in the development of some unique equipment used by law enforcement officers today.

The search for durable fibres to strengthen car tires, an initial goal of chemists, led to the creation of Kevlar. This material was subsequently used in bullet-resistant vests during the Vietnam War, a concept later adopted by police officers, saving many lives in the process.

The Conducted Energy Device (CED), commonly referred to as the Taser, is a recent invention that has helped officers apprehend violent and aggressive persons without having to resort to the use of deadly force. Pepper spray and tear gas are also used, both effective in subduing unruly crowds.

Dogs that work in law enforcement are commonly referred to as police canines. The primary function of these specially trained dogs is to provide support to police officers working on the street by tracking and “chasing down” suspected criminals who try to flee police. Police canines and their handlers respond to many types of crimes, often those involving suspects who have fled on foot or who have tried to hide in enclosed spaces such as buildings or containers. Some police departments also use narcotic detection dogs trained to detect the presence of illegal drugs. Also, explosive detection dogs are used to detect explosives hidden from view.

Lesson 1 of this module examines the properties of bullet-resistant vests and Conducted Energy Devices (CED) and how both have saved the lives of law enforcement officers.

Lesson 2 discusses the molecular components of pepper spray and tear gas and how each is used by police officers.

Lesson 3 explains how police canines are trained and used in various areas of law enforcement.

Lesson 4 examines the details of two historical crimes that involve law enforcement safety equipment and police canines.

Bullet-resistant vests are a type of body armour. Body armour is of two main categories: hard body armour and soft body armour.

Medieval knights wore hard body armour.

Medieval knights wore hard body armour made of heavy metal chain and steel plates. These suits of armour helped to deflect blows from weapons such as swords, lances, and axes. Current forms of hard body armour include heavy steel or ceramic plates set within bullet-resistant vests. These rigid “trauma plates” deflect edged weapons and many types of bullets that normally pierce soft body armour. Such forms of hard body armour help to absorb and dissipate tremendous amounts of kinetic energy delivered by the impact of a high-power rifle bullet or the focused energy of the tip of a knife. In general, hard body armour offers more protection than soft body armour; however, it is impractical for daily use by police officers because it is heavy and inflexible, restricting movement.

Hard body armour vest used by military personal.

- Image Source: Wikipedia.com

Bullet-resistant vests, also referred to as soft body armour, are constructed of many layers of bullet-resistant fabric of specialized fibres. Soft body armour absorbs the impact of a bullet, diffusing the force of the impact and thereby preventing penetration. It does not cause bullets to ricochet. Modern bullet-resistant vests are durable, lightweight, and flexible, making them ideal for police officers on the street.

Kevlar was first invented in Wilmington, Delaware in 1964 by a chemist named Stephanie Kwolek. Born in Pennsylvania in 1923, she earned a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry in 1946. In 1950, she began working at a new Dupont research laboratory where she conducted low-temperature experiments in the preparation of polymers for the creation of highly rigid and strong petroleum-based fibres. Kwolek created a solvent that caused unstable intermediates from these experiments to polymerize or bond into long chains or branched structures. When placed under these conditions, Kwolek’s polymers formed a cloudy fluid in contrast to the clear and viscous fluid of most polymers. She was able to spin this cloudy fluid into incredibly strong fibres that were eventually patented and marketed in 1971 under the brand name Kevlar.

Molecular Traits of Kevlar

Bullet-resistant vests are made from a synthetic polymer known as Kevlar. A polymer is a natural or fabricated molecule formed by combining single units, called monomers, into long chains. Other common synthetic polymers include Lycra, nylon, polyester, and Teflon.

Kevlar is so strong because of five distinct molecular traits:

Kevlar is five times stronger than steel, yet it is extremely lightweight. Kevlar does not rust or corrode and it readily absorbs vibrations. Kevlar is expensive because special precautions are necessary to handle the concentrated sulfuric acid used in its manufacture.

Kevlar breaks down when exposed to the ultraviolet rays in sunlight; hence, it is not used unprotected or unsheathed. Dry-cleaning agents, bleach, and repeated washing can also negatively affect Kevlar. To protect against all these problems, the layers of Kevlar in bullet-resistant vests have fabric coverings to prevent exposure to sunlight and moisture.

Kevlar is made in three common grades: Kevlar, Kevlar 29, and Kevlar 49. Kevlar is typically used as in tires. Kevlar 29 is used in body armour, industrial cables, asbestos replacements, and brake linings. Kevlar 49 is used in applications such as plastic reinforcement for boat hulls, airplanes, and bicycles.

Bullet-Resistant Vests Used in Policing

Most North American police officers engaged in frontline law enforcement now wear bullet-resistant vests. However, as the name implies, bullet-resistant vests do not prevent injury from edged weapons that police officers may encounter, such as knives, arrows, or ice picks. Because the force of a blow from such weapons is focused on a very small area, knives and other pointed objects can penetrate many layers of Kevlar causing injury or death. However, specially designed vests that protect against edged weapons are often worn by correctional officers.

Bullet-resistant vests provide protection from most low and medium-velocity handgun bullets but not high-velocity rifle rounds. Hard body armour consisting of a ceramic or metal plate inserted into a pocket in the front of a bullet-resistant vest greatly increases the protection offered by a bullet-resistant vest. These trauma plates are smaller than the front panel of a vest, and they are surrounded by several layers of Kevlar that prevent bullet fragments from ricocheting from the trauma plate after impact. An additional protection helps prevent injury to the heart, lungs, and ribs that may arise from “blunt force trauma”, a type of injury sustained by the sudden force of a bullet hitting but not quite penetrating a vest. Blunt force trauma can cause severe bruising, cracked ribs, or even death.

Higher threat protection levels can be achieved with additional layers of Kevlar and heavier trauma plates, but these forms of hard body armour are rigid, heavy, and bulky. They are impractical for routine use by uniformed patrol officers. Tactical team members typically wear such types of body armour for short periods when dealing with high-risk incidents involving the use of firearms.

Case Study: Testing of the First Bullet-resistant Vest

One summer night in 1969, the owner of a small pizza restaurant in Detroit was shot during a botched robbery attempt while he was delivering pizzas. While recovering from his wounds, Richard Davis began to research the possibility of developing some concealed personal ballistic protection. While working in his garage, he eventually developed with many layers of nylon fabric a panel thin enough to wear under a shirt. It could stop handgun rounds that were commonly being used by local criminals. The soft protective panels could be worn front and back in a flak jacket design for military personnel.

Davis intended to produce concealable bullet-resistant vests for use by patrol officers, many of whom were being murdered each year by assailants armed with handguns. However, he had first to convince the law enforcement community that a nylon vest would adequately protect a human test subject. Until then, nobody had ever been shot while wearing one of the vests. At that time, nobody knew if blunt force trauma would kill a person even if the bullet did not penetrate the vest.

In a momentous test of nerve in 1972, Richard Davis filmed himself while test firing a .38 calibre revolver into the front panel of a nylon-based protective vest that he wore. As he loaded his revolver, he wondered aloud about the effect of the bullet that he would soon be firing into the vest he was wearing:

Nervously, Davis spoke about whether he thought his vest would work, and just before pulling the trigger, he uttered these profound words:

Davis then fired one .38 round into the front panel of his nylon vest, and found that he was able to immediately return fire at an imaginary target. He was later examined at a local hospital. His only injury was a minor abrasion on his chest where the bullet had struck the vest. While wearing a concealable vest, a person could survive a shooting without being incapacitated by the associated blunt force trauma resulting from the bullet’s impact. This was extremely significant to police officers, who must be able to return fire at an assailant if they are shot without warning.

Richard Davis went on to form a company called Second Chance Armour, Inc., which soon began using Kevlar for the bullet-resistant vests.

In early sales demonstrations, Davis was so confident in the quality of his company’s bullet-resistant vests that he would put on one of his vests and shoot himself, usually with a firearm provided by the law enforcement agency to which he was trying to sell the vests. The first police officer whose life was saved by wearing Second Chance soft body armour was Detroit police officer, Ron Jagielski, whose vest stopped a .38 round in 1973.

Thousands of police departments worldwide equip their patrol officers with the Conducted Energy Device (CED). The CED is a type of electroshock weapon used to subdue a person by administering an electric shock that disrupts superficial muscle function. Use of the CED by police has caused the number of officer-involved firearms-related shootings to decrease.

Taser International Inc. developed a CED called the ‘taser gun’ that is used by more than 2500 law enforcement agencies around the world. However, this is a brand name and not an accurate term for all CEDs. Because of the popularity of the taser gun among law enforcement agencies, CEDs are often called taser guns.

Description of the CED

Closely resembling a handgun, a CED is an electrical device that works as a contact weapon or as a projectile weapon. When used as a contact weapon, the CED is placed directly upon a body part of a suspect. When used as a projectile weapon, two small weighted barbs attached to lengths of copper wire are propelled from the CED embed in the skin or clothing of a suspect. An electrical charge of approximately 200 000 volts to 300 000 volts is then cycled through the suspect. This sudden charge of electricity immobilizes the suspect through a process commonly referred to as neuromuscular incapacitation, characterized by a sensation of extreme discomfort and immobilization until the electrical current is shut off.

Modern CEDs fire small dart-like electrodes attached to copper wires that connect to a cartridge attached to the front of the device. CED electrodes are propelled by small gas cartridges similar to those in air rifles. The maximum effective range of most CEDs is approximately 6.5 metres (21 feet). Older CED models fire electrodes that embed into the skin and superficial muscle tissues layers, but they have difficulty penetrating thick clothing. Newer CEDs fire similar electrodes; however, these electrodes release a pulse and/or arc of electricity that disrupts nerve and muscle function without penetrating the skin. Consequently, newer CEDs can immobilize a subject wearing many layers of clothing.

The CED is designed to stimulate both the muscular and nervous systems of the human body. When the CED comes into contact with a body part, a relatively small electrical current sends a high frequency of electrical impulses into the muscles causing the muscles to spasm in inefficiently. The recipient feels great pain and is paralyzed as long as the electrical current is applied. The rapid, inefficient muscular contractions caused by the application of the CED deplete the muscles of oxygen and cause excessive build-up of lactate in seconds. The CED also disables nerve impulses that direct muscle movement, causing disorientation, loss of balance, and confusion for several minutes.

A build-up of lactate causes pain, making movement difficult. Oxygen supplies are low during anaerobic respiration, such as during strenuous exercise when energy demand by the muscles is faster than the body can adequately supply oxygen for aerobic respiration. The build-up of lactate allows energy production to continue despite the lack of oxygen. Therefore, extreme exertion results in the painful, burning sensations often felt in working muscles. It is thought that this painful sensation forces a recovery period to occur that allows the body to break down the excessive lactate.

The main internal components of a CED consist of alkaline batteries, an oscillator, a resonant circuit, and a step-up transformer. When the trigger of the CED is pressed, an oscillator converts the energy from the batteries into a stable resonant electrical circuit. A resonant circuit is an electrical circuit that allows the greatest flow of electricity at a certain frequency. The electricity then flows into a step-up transformer that increases the voltage produced by the CED. In modern CEDs, the electrical current is relatively low because most use commonly available alkaline batteries such as AA or 9 volt.

The output voltages of the CED are in the range of 50 000 volts to 900 000 volts, with the most common being between 200 000 volts and 300 000 volts. However, the actual output current released upon contact with a subject is quite small because of factors such as moisture, body salinity, clothing, the CED’s circuitry, battery conditions, and resistance within the subject.

- Image Source: Sergeant A. Kowalyk, Edmonton Police Service

The term "less-lethal" is often used to describe the Conducted Energy Device (CED) by police because no device meant to subdue an aggressive subject is completely safe. Other less-lethal devices used by police include pepper spray, tear gas, and batons.

Conducted Energy Devices are often used by police officers as alternatives to impact weapons or firearms. The availability of a CED is considered advantageous because it can be deployed quickly with great success, often leaving little or no sign of injuries on the subject. This is perhaps preferable to using an impact weapon such as a baton, which can break bones or cause soft tissue damage. A CED can also be used to neutralize an aggressive subject who may be armed with a knife or blunt object without immediately having to resort to the use of a firearm. Most incidents in which a CED is deployed were resolved peacefully without actually resorting to deliberate force. The mere presence of a CED often appears to be enough to gain the cooperation of most belligerent subjects.

Police officers are trained to use their CEDs in accordance with a very limited set of circumstances, typically when a suspect is actively resisting arrest or presents a threat to the officer through overly aggressive behaviour. Police policy on CED deployment varies by jurisdiction. Although the Alberta Association of Chiefs of Police recommend that CED deployment occur when a subject is resisting arrest, some police agencies set their standard higher by specifying that other factors must be present, such as the presence of weapons or prior acts of violence.

When the CED is deployed at an incident and is pointed in the direction of a suspect, verbal direction is given in conjunction with its use. The police officer may say, “Stop resisting or you will be tasered.” This warning provides a violent or highly agitated subject with the opportunity to reconsider the consequences of his or her actions, and surrender to police without further incident.

A one-second contact with a CED will startle the attacker and cause some pain associated with electro-muscular disruption. This is commonly referred to as a pain compliance technique, involving the use of a CED while in “drive stun” mode. This method of deployment is particularly useful when a subject is under some control but is still uncooperative, such as when police officers are trying to apply handcuffs but cannot gain control of the subject’s hands.

This technique can also be used to incapacitate a person by disrupting both the sensory and motor nervous systems, causing temporary involuntary muscle incapacitation. This occurs through the firing of two separate probes that are connected to the CED by thin copper wire approximately 8 metres in length. An electrical charge in cycles of five seconds or longer travels through the wire and into the subject’s body. This causes a continuous contraction of muscles throughout the subject’s body and results in a loss of balance and muscle control as well as temporary cognitive disorientation. To date, no in-custody deaths have ever been attributed to the use of a CED.

An electrical current of more than 10 amperes is considered potentially lethal to humans. Modern CEDs limit the available current to well below this level. For example, cardiac defibrillators operate in the range of 1.5 to 4.0 amperes, but the taser model X26, that almost all police agencies utilize has an average output of 1.8 amperes. Because the current delivered by a CED is low, medical experts generally agree that a CED is not life threatening as long as the subject is not already suffering from a heart condition or what has come to be known as “excited delirium”, which is a heightened state of hyperactivity that can result from excessive drug use. Symptoms of this state include aggressive behaviour, paranoia, enhanced physical strength, and the inability to feel pain.

Although all police officers carry handguns, most police departments do not provide a CED to more than a select few of their officers. Because a single Taser Model X26 costs approximately CDN$2000, the costs involved in equipping and training a large number of officers with CEDs is quite high. It remains to be seen whether this will change in the future.

Patrol officers equipped with CEDs must undergo extensive training. They must first be recommended for training by their respective supervisors. Then, they participate in a one-day course, which consists of learning how to handle the weapon and understanding the mechanics of its basic function. Officers are then tested in various judgment scenarios followed by a written exam. After an officer has successfully completed the course, a coordinator ensures that all policies and procedures are being followed. Additional training is provided annually.

Pepper Spray

Pepper spray (also known as Oleoresin Capsicum spray, OC spray, or capsicum spray) is a chemical compound known as a lacrymatory agent that irritates the eyes and nose causing tears, pain, and temporary blindness. Pepper spray is a “less-than-lethal” force weapon used by police officers to subdue combative or aggressive suspects.

Capsaicin in Pepper Spray

Chilli Peppers

- Image Source: Wikipedia.com

Bell peppers and chilli peppers are members of the Capsicum genus. Capsaicin is not found in bell peppers. Chilli peppers contain various amounts of capsaicin. Jalapenos, cayennes, and habaneros are all types of chilli peppers.

The active ingredient in pepper spray is Capsaicin, a tasteless and odourless powdered extract from chilli peppers. The liquid concentrate made from this powder and used in pepper sprays is Oleoresin Capsaicin (OC).

Pepper spray is an inflammatory agent; thus, when sprayed into an individual’s face, it causes immediate swelling of the eyes due to capillary dilation. This leads to temporary blindness. OC also causes inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the nose, mouth, and throat. This may cause a runny nose, uncontrollable coughing, and difficulty with breathing and talking. Some individuals exposed to pepper spray will even experience upper body spasms that force them to bend forward.

How long an individual is affected by pepper spray depends on the concentration of the OC in the spray. Police officers typically use a pepper spray that contains 10% Oleoresin Capsaicin that affects an individual for about 30 to 45 minutes. Because sensitivity to pepper spray varies from person to person, some feel the effects of pepper spray for hours after exposure.

Although pepper spray cannot be completely neutralized, its effects can be minimized. OC is not soluble in water, so splashing large volumes of water on affected body parts has little to no effect. Because OC is soluble in fats and oils, milk or mild dish detergents can be used to help wash it out.

Interestingly, pepper sprays with higher percentages of OC do not necessarily produce effects that are more dramatic. An effective pepper spray needs to allow a police officer time to disable the suspect and then take control of the situation. As a result, the most effective pepper sprays contain between 2% and 10% OC. Pepper sprays with low OC concentrations are less viscous or lighter than sprays containing higher concentrations of OC. The lighter the liquid in a spray, the faster it will penetrate the mucous membranes. In addition, the percentage does not correlate to the spray’s level of intensity. Pepper sprays with high concentrations of OC may cause more inflammation of the skin surrounding the mucous membranes and may cause the inflammation to last longer.

- Image Source: Sergeant A. Kowalyk, Edmonton Police Service

Pepper spray typically comes in a canister carried in a pouch on a police officer’s equipment belt. Most patrol officers in major police departments across North America carry these canisters.

Similar to their use of CEDs, police officers may use pepper spray instead of an impact weapon such as a baton. Pepper spray is considered advantageous because it can be deployed quickly, often with success. It leaves little sign of physical harm after the effects of the spray have worn off in about 30 minutes to an hour. In some circumstances, pepper spray is a preferred weapon in potentially physical confrontations because the use of a baton often causes soft tissue damage. Pepper spray can also be used to neutralize an aggressive subject who may be armed without the officer having to resort to a CED or a firearm.

Police officers are instructed to use their pepper spray only during a limited set of circumstances such as when a suspect is resisting arrest or is openly confrontational and is about to attack an officer. When the pepper spray is pointed in the direction of a suspect, verbal direction is given in conjunction with its use, such as “Stop resisting—put your hands in the air.”

Risks Related to Pepper Spray Exposure

When police officers use pepper spray to subdue suspects, there is a risk that they may be inadvertently exposed to its effects. For this reason, officers are trained to be aware of prevailing winds that might blow the spray in their faces. In addition, officers experience its effects in their classes to help teach them how to react in appropriately should this occur.

People who suffer from severe asthma or who are under the influence of drugs may face some risk of injury or death if they are exposed to pepper spray. This is generally attributed to a potentially fatal condition called “excited delirium” that involves subjects who suffocate or experience heart failure after undergoing tremendous exertion while resisting arrest. Present research indicates that pepper spray is not a direct causal factor in such cases of in-custody death.

The Journal of Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science published a study that concluded that one exposure of the eye to OC is harmless but repeated exposure can result in long-lasting changes to the cornea, the outermost thin layer of transparent tissue in the front of the eye. This study concluded that a single exposure to pepper spray causes no lasting negative effects upon visual acuity.

- Image Source: Wikipedia.com

Tear gas is a general term for any non-lethal chemical used to cause temporary incapacitation through the irritation of eyes and/or respiratory system. Because tear gas is widely used by police departments to subdue large groups of unruly people in riot situations, it is often referred to as a “riot control agent”.

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Properties of Tear Gas (CS)

There are many types of tear gas . The tear gas most widely used by police agencies is 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile (C₁₀H₅ClN₂). Two American scientists, Ben Carson and Roger Staughton, developed C₁₀H₅ClN₂, and as a result, the first letters of their surnames, CS, are used as its acronym.

Unlike the suggestion of the name tear gas, at room temperature CS is a white solid and must be released as an aerosol rather than a true gas. In its aerosol form, CS is dispersed as fine particles, or it is dissolved in a solution.

CS is stable when heated and at room temperature. It has a low solubility in water and a high solubility in basic or alkaline solutions. CS will eventually dissolve in water (15 minutes), but it dissolves very rapidly in an alkaline solution (1 minute). Therefore, CS is easily removed using an alkaline solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and water.

Riot control agents such as CS are lacrymatory agents; that is, they cause severe irritation to the eyes. However, in addition to the eyes, CS causes pain, burning, and irritation to the skin, airways, and any exposed mucous membranes of the nose and mouth.

The eyes are the most sensitive organs to tear gas because it causes tearing, burning, and pain. CS exposure also causes the eyelids to close tightly producing temporary blindness. However, if the eyes are opened, vision is nearly normal even if a significant amount of CS residue is present.

Contact of tear gas with the delicate mucous membranes of the nose and mouth produces burning, sneezing, and increased production of mucous and saliva. Inhalation of CS causes burning and irritation of the lining of the trachea, which produces coughing and irregular breathing.

Practical Use of Tear Gas by Police

Tear gas is sometimes used by police to disperse unruly crowds about to riot, or it may be used to clear armed suspects from a house or building. Tear gas is effective in that it produces severe sensory irritation, forcing a person or group of people to flee an area or surrender to police just to escape its noxious effects. Another advantage is that tear gas is non-lethal, and in most cases, its disabling physical effects disappear within minutes.

Tear gas is typically deployed using gas-filled canisters. Tear gas grenades are projected using a grenade launcher, which is useful for propelling canisters of tear gas into a violent mob, for example. A grenade, or metal canister containing tear gas, is loaded into the breech of a grenade launcher prior to being fired from the barrel

Thousands of tons of CS tear gas were used by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War to bring their enemy, the Viet Cong, into the open. The Viet Cong were notorious for their use of intricate underground tunnels in which they hid from the enemy and moved undetected.

Effects of Exposure to Tear Gas

One of the greatest advantages to using tear gas is that, in general, it leads to quick submission and its effects are not long lasting. Less than 1% of people exposed to tear gas have effects severe enough to warrant medical care. People who do seek medical help from tear gas exposure usually have eye, airway, or skin complaints. There is no antidote for tear gas; therefore, patients can achieve relief only if their symptoms are treated.

Police with riot shields in Seoul, Korea - Image Source: Wikipedia.com Use of CS during warfare is prohibited under the terms of the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention because its use could trigger retaliation with more harmful chemical agents such as nerve gas. Domestic use of CS by police is legal in most countries.

Constable Bruce Edwards and Police Service Dog Wizard, Edmonton Police Service - Image Source: Edmonton Police Service In 1999, a police service dog named Breston, working for the Cheektowaga Police Department in Cheektowaga, New York, sniffed out $3.4 million dollars worth of drugs. Breston, a Belgian Malinois, was able to smell the marijuana despite it being heat-sealed in Mylar plastic bags inside plastic-lined crates sealed with foam sealant inside a closed storage garage.

The primary function of the Police Canine Unit is to provide support to patrol officers on the street. Police canines and their handlers respond to crimes in progress where suspects are fleeing on foot or possibly hiding. Dogs are also used by police to track missing persons or to find hidden drugs or explosives.

Unique Physiological Abilities of Dogs

Dogs have several unique physiological qualities that make them valuable assets to police agencies worldwide.

A dog can be trained to use its sense of smell to identify individual people, drugs, explosives, or weapons. In addition, a dog's sense of smell is discriminating in that the dog is able to identify a specific scent even when many other scents are present. Drug smugglers have often tried to fool drug-sniffing dogs by wrapping drugs in materials soaked with perfume or putting the drugs in boxes filled with mothballs. However, well-trained drug detection dogs still find the drugs despite these devious efforts.

A dog’s olfactory system or sense of smell is 50 times more sensitive than a human’s is. A dog’s nose has approximately 200 million specialized scent-receptor cells called olfactory sensory receptors, but a human's nose has only about 5 million of these. Olfactory receptors are embedded in the special membrane in the nose called the olfactory epithelium. The human nose has an average of 16 cm² of olfactory epithelium, but a dog’s nose has an average of 150 cm². After molecules of airborne odours dissolve in the mucous layer covering the olfactory epithelium, they stimulate olfactory sensory receptors that, in turn, trigger an electrical impulse in sensory neurons. These neurons send messages to the cerebrum for interpretation. The area of a dog's brain that interprets olfaction or smell is 15 times larger than that of a human.

Police service dogs can apprehend a criminal suspect who flees or subdue a suspect who is exhibiting violent behaviour. They can do this because they can run faster than most humans and because they can use their powerful jaws to clamp onto a suspect.

Another asset of police service dogs is their loud barking which can be very intimidating to most individuals. Some suspects voluntarily stop running or being aggressive when they see or hear a police service dog.

- Image Source: Edmonton Police Service

In 1899, Belgium established the first police dog training program in the world. Success of this program prompted other European countries, such as Germany, France, Hungary, Austria, England, and Italy to train and use dogs formally for police work. In England in 1908, police service dogs were used successfully to subdue crowds of rowdy sailors on shore leave.

In Canada during the late 1800s, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) started using sled dogs to transport officers on their patrol runs. During the early 1900s, the RCMP began using bloodhounds as tracking dogs. By 1935, the RCMP established a formal police service under Captain Harwich, an ex-Prussian military officer, training dogs for searching, tracking, and attacking. The dogs from this program were so successful that additional funding was provided to purchase and train more dogs. As a result, a police dog training school was established in Calgary in 1937.

During World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945), dogs were used extensively by the military to guard prisoners, first by Germany and then by other countries. After World War II, the use of dogs in the military lead to more police agencies around the world adopting and/or expanding this method of policing. The use of police dogs continued to grow and became widespread during the 1960s and 1970s in North America. Now, all major North American police department have canine units. Police service dogs are recognized as being a vital part of law enforcement.

Because dogs are various shapes and sizes, not every dog breed is suited for police work. The specific breed used by police departments depends on the specific tasks for which the dogs will be needed. Most police departments use dogs that have been bred and raised specifically for police work. Three popular breeds used for various types of police work are the German Shepherd, the Belgian Malinois, and the Labrador Retriever.

- Image Source: Edmonton Police Service

Police service dogs are most commonly used by law enforcement agencies to track and apprehend suspects who run from the scene of a crime. Most major Canadian municipal police agencies have canine units consisting of a supervisor and 5 to 10 canine officers with their police service dogs. Large police agencies have from one to three canine officers on duty at any given time. While on duty, a canine officer drives a slightly modified patrol vehicle accommodating the police service dog. Because sometimes a police service dog must remain in a patrol car for lengthy periods (such as while the officer is writing reports), police vehicles used by canine officers have special alarm systems triggered if the ventilation system malfunctions and the interior of the vehicle becomes overheated. The alarm system may automatically lower the vehicle’s windows, cause the horn to sound, or notify the officer by cell phone or pager.

Emergency Response

When a situation arises in which a suspect has just fled the scene of a crime, responding patrol officers often call the police dispatcher from their car radio or portable radios to request a canine unit to help them apprehend the suspect(s). The dispatcher then notifies an available canine officer, providing a brief description and location of the event. The canine officer drives quickly to the scene, using the police vehicle’s lights and siren in the interest of public safety. A police officer meets the Canine officer at the scene and provides a brief description of what occurred, possible suspect description, last known location, and direction of travel. The Canine officer considers the time since the suspect left the scene and the presence of pedestrian traffic in the area before beginning a search. If many people are walking in the area, the likelihood of successfully tracking a fleeing suspect diminishes considerably. While the Canine officer tracks a suspect, he or she is accompanied by one of the police officers who responded initially to the scene. This promotes officer safety and may assist an arrest if a suspect is apprehended in an isolated area.

If a suspect is apprehended, the police officers who responded initially to the scene will take over custody of the individual and transport him or her to a nearby police station for processing. The canine officer then provides a brief written statement outlining his or her involvement in the apprehension, which forms part of the investigator’s case file. The canine officer may complete the required paperwork immediately after the arrest or at the end of his or her shift if other priority calls for service must be handled.

When Canine officers are on duty and available, they may patrol high crime areas, look for stolen vehicles, or complete outstanding reports. They are not typically expected to respond to routine calls for service because their primary responsibility is to be available to help other police officers in the apprehension of fleeing suspects.

Detection Dogs

Many law enforcement agencies also use police dogs to “sniff out” narcotics, explosives, or even cadavers. Drug-detection dogs are able to detect various illegal drugs, including marijuana and methamphetamine, and explosives-detection dogs are used to search places and objects in which bombs or explosive materials may be hidden.

Dogs trained to detect drugs or explosives are not used to track and apprehend suspects fleeing the scenes of crimes. Instead, they are used to assist in the detection of drug shipments or for security purposes by checking for the presence of explosive materials in such places as airports, government buildings, or seaports.

Drug detection dogs are useful in searching difficult-to-reach places in which various quantities of drugs might be hidden. They are also used at traffic stops, in prisons, and even in schools. Their training involves the use of real explosives such as gunpowder, dynamite, and military grade materials such as Semtex. Testing procedures for certification involve identification drills intended to help canine officers distinguish simple unattended items from suspicious packages during searches of luggage, outdoor areas, buildings, vehicles, and aircraft.

Cadaver-detection dogs are trained to detect the scent of decomposing bodies and are used in cases where the objective of an organized search is to find a person’s body. Unlike standard Search and Rescue dogs, cadaver dogs are trained to detect the scent of decomposing flesh wafting up from the ground. To train for this purpose, specialized law enforcement training facilities use special chemicals to simulate the scent of decomposing human flesh. Training includes scene and evidence preservation because the discovery of a body (or body part) signals the existence of a crime scene.

Constable Randy Schreiner and Police Service Dog Titus, Edmonton Police Service

- Image Source: Edmonton Police Service

In February 1986, Constable Randy Schreiner of the Edmonton Police Service (EPS) was selected to become a puppy handler of a potential police service puppy. The puppy was a male German Shepherd named Titus, a very playful and mischievous young dog nicknamed Punchout because he had dark black circles around his eyes. Titus had all the traits needed to become a successful police service dog—intelligence, aggression, strength, good sense of smell, and obedience. In August 1987, Constable Schreiner and Titus began their basic police service dog training.

Titus’ first major suspect apprehension occurred in the first month he began working. Police received a Peeping Tom complaint by phone involving a suspect trespassing in a person’s yard at night and looking in the windows. When Constable Schreiner and Titus arrived at the address of the complainant, Titus picked up the fresh scent of the Peeping Tom suspect. Titus followed the scent and lead Constable Schreiner through a rugged embankment into a residential area. As Titus and Constable Schreiner were tracking through the residential area, they came upon two male suspects trying to break into a house by prying open a window. When the suspects saw Constable Schreiner and Titus, they both ran. Titus was then released and easily grabbed the jacket of one of the suspects who was later arrested.

Titus’ last apprehension occurred on August 27, 1989. Shortly before midnight, an armed robbery was reported at a convenience store in south Edmonton. Two men with knives had entered, demanded money, and left after tying up the clerk. The two suspects jumped into a waiting Fiero sports car and sped off. Within minutes, several patrol cars spotted the suspect vehicle and began pursuing it. The pursuit concluded with the Fiero hitting a dead end on a service road.

After the car stopped, the driver was apprehended immediately. However, the other two occupants fled on foot. One was apprehended immediately, but the third continued to run. Titus, now four years old and his handler, Constable Schreiner, began pursuing the suspect. Titus followed the suspect as he ran across a busy street. Just as Titus was about to jump to apprehend the suspect, both were struck by an oncoming vehicle.

When Constable Schreiner reached Titus, he was motionless on the ground. He checked Titus’ vital signs, but he was not breathing and had only a very faint heartbeat. Another Canine Unit officer arrived on the scene moments later, and Constable Schreiner lifted Titus into the patrol car. As they drove to an Emergency Animal Clinic, Titus’ heart stopped. Shortly after they arrived at the clinic, the veterinarian confirmed resuscitation was useless, and Titus was pronounced dead.

The death of Titus was a major loss to the EPS Canine Unit because he was an excellent police service dog in his prime at only 4 years of age. The suspect Titus was pursuing survived and was arrested. Constable Randy Schreiner was obviously very shaken by the incident. After some time off, he returned to the EPS. However, he began working in another unit and did not return to the Canine Unit.

Related Case Study Questions

How long was Constable Schreiner a puppy handler?
Ans. February 1986 to August 1987 is 18 months

What type of crime was committed by the first suspect apprehended by Titus?
Ans.  Trespassing in a person’s yard at night; looking in the windows of the residence; attempted breaking into a house by prying open a window

At the time of his death, for how many more years was Titus scheduled to serve in the EPS Canine Unit?
Ans.  He had three more years of service. (Dogs usually stay in the Canine Unit for seven years)

What did Constable Schreiner do after the death of his partner, Titus?
Ans.  Constable Schreiner took some time off and then returned to the EPS. However, he began working in another unit and did not return to the Canine Unit.

Overview

- Image Source: Courtesy Sergeant A. Kowalyk, Edmonton Police Service

The arrest of suspects involves a risk of violence. Police officers must use various pieces of equipment to protect themselves as they try to maintain public safety. Through technology, some unique equipment used by law enforcement officers has been developed.

This lesson focuses upon two historical crime case studies that involve law enforcement safety equipment and police canines. Each case study is based on actual historical events. The first case study is “The North Hollywood Shootout”; the second is “Police Canine Makes the Ultimate Sacrifice”.

You are expected to answer the related questions about these case studies in your assignment.

- Image Source: Wikipedia.org

Background

Police body armour and less-lethal weapons such as pepper spray, tear gas, batons, and police service dogs often enable police officers to apprehend aggressive or violent suspects without resorting to firearms. Soft body armour is worn routinely by police officers as a precaution in case an armed suspect shoots at them.

Concealable soft body armour has saved hundreds of officers’ lives since it was developed for general duty use in the early 1970s. However, suspected criminals sometimes use it during the commission of crimes. The infamous 1997 North Hollywood Shootout, involving two heavily armed men and hundreds of officers from the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), is an example of the effectiveness of soft body armour and the limitations of less-lethal weapons in dynamic situations involving firearms. Although only the suspects were killed in this incident, the high number of injuries made this one of the bloodiest cases of violent crime in the 1990s and one of the most dramatic bank robberies of the 20th century.

Description of the Culprits

The bank robbers were Larry Phillips Jr. and Emil Matasareanu. They were both bodybuilders. Phillips was a 26-year-old unsuccessful real estate salesman with a wife and two children. Matasareanu, an unsuccessful software designer, was raised by his mother who operated a home for several mentally-ill patients. As a result of a blow from one of the patients, Matasareanu suffered from a brain abnormality called epilepsy. Strangely, Matasareanu had brain surgery only a few weeks prior to the North Hollywood Shootout.

The two men had robbed several banks of over $1.6 million in total. Their first three robberies involved stealing cash from armoured cars, and their last two robberies involved holding up banks.

Suspect Body Armor

On February 28, 1997, shortly after 9:00 a.m., Larry Phillips Jr. and Emil Matasareanu entered a Bank of America in North Hollywood Los Angeles, California. Phillips was actually covered head-to-toe with soft body armour and bulky clothing as he entered the bank. He had two halves of one bullet-resistant vest wrapped around his legs, four more halves around his thighs and arms, and one vest on his torso. The bullets-resistant vests were not cut up and sewn together because cutting Kevlar breaks the outer seal, which causes it to fray and lose most of its protective quality. The vests were simply held together with the velcro straps that were already on the vests. Emil Matasareanu wore a single bullet-resistant vest with a trauma plate over his torso; he had not covered his arms and legs.

The Robbery

Both suspects were armed with high-powered assault rifles. Before entering the bank, both robbers took some phenobarbitol, a barbiturate prescribed as a anti-seizure medication. The medication likely belonged to Matasareanu for his epileptic seizures. It is thought that both suspects took this drug for its physically calming side-effects.

Thirty-two customers and ten employees were in the bank at the time of the robbery. One customer was injured when he was hit in the head with the end of one suspect’s rifle. An individual walking past the bank saw the robbers enter the bank and flagged down an LAPD patrol car.

When the robbers entered the bank, one discharged a full 30-round magazine into the ceiling. The suspects then split up. Phillips kept watch in the lobby while Matasareanu forced the bank manager to open the vault. The bank manager placed US$303 305 in a suitcase, but Phillips and Matasareanu were expecting more. Unknown to them, their previous robberies had led the banks in the area to change their armoured car delivery times to make them less predictable. The bank Phillips and Matasareanu had chosen to rob had not yet received any money from their armoured car delivery service.

When Matasareanu was told that no more money was in the vault, he demanded the manager open the Automated Teller Machines (ATM). However, nobody on-site had access to the ATMs. This infuriated Matasareanu, causing him to try to shoot open the ATM access point. The shots broke the lock, making opening the ATM impossible. Frustrated, the robbers decided to leave with what money they had. They locked all the customers and employees in the bank vault. Larry Phillips left through the north door of the bank, and Matasareanu went through the south door a few seconds later.

The Shootout

Approximately 20 minutes after entry, both suspects exited the bank. They were met by several LAPD police officers armed with handguns as well as a few pump-action shotguns.

Standing in the doorway of the bank, Phillips began spraying at police officers positioned on the north side of the bank. Both gunmen used armour-piercing cartridges in their rifles, capable of penetrating cars, walls, and the soft body armour.

A rookie police officer taking cover behind a kiosk across the street from the bank fired at Phillips when his back was turned. The officer stuck him in the back with nine buckshot pellets (as determined later). However, because of his body armour, Phillips was left unscathed. Phillips fired back at the officers behind the kiosk, hitting the rookie officer twice in his lower back and buttocks and another detective in the ankle. The two wounded officers entered a dentist’s office nearby where the staff treated their injuries.

Meanwhile, Matasareanu had the suitcase of money with him. Three dye packs that had been slipped into the suitcase containing the cash caused a red smoke to begin spewing out. Because the dye destroys the money, Matasareanu abandoned the suitcase and angrily began firing from the south side of the bank. About fifteen minutes into the shootout, Matasareanu received a gunshot wound to his leg. He jumped into a getaway car. As he drove the car, he continued to fire shots through the car's windows.

Phillips continued to fire at officers as he walked toward the north side of the bank. Several officers and detectives fired at Phillips from behind a cement wall at the rear of the bank. Phillips fired back as he calmly walked towards the getaway car. A round from one of the officers behind the wall hit Phillips in the chest, nearly knocking him over. However, his body armour saved him again. At the getaway car, Phillips threw his AK-47 rifle inside and got out a new weapon, an illegally converted automatic HK-91 rifle.

Before he got into the car, Phillips fired randomly at officers just across the street. Officers continued to return fire, and one round hit Phillips’ hand. This hit seemed to distract Phillips from getting into the getaway car. He walked away and continued shooting wildly from behind nearby cars. Phillips even began shooting at news helicopters filming the shootout.

The Attempted Getaway

Matasareanu began backing the car out of the parking lot. Phillips hurried to him, firing as he went. As he approached the trunk of the car, a round struck his shoulder, immobilizing the upper left side of his body. Despite this, Phillips continued to shoot his rifle with one-hand. He threw his HK-91 into the trunk and pulled out a Norinco Chinese Type 56 Assault Rifle.

As he tried to load his new weapon, Matasareanu opened the passenger side door. However, Phillips shut the door and began walking beside the car in an apparent attempt to provide cover fire for his partner. The car with Phillips walking beside moved away from the bank to the edge of the parking lot. Phillips ducked behind a tractor trailer on a street near the bank and began firing aggressively again. This allowed Matasareanu to drive past him to the end of the street.

Phillips continued to shoot at officers as he moved. However, his rifle jammed. He then dropped the rifle and pulled a handgun from his jacket. He fired several rounds, but he dropped the handgun after he was shot in the right hand. Phillips then picked up the handgun and shot himself in the throat, dying instantly. It is unclear whether this was deliberate or accidental. A nearby officer thought that Phillips killed himself accidentally as he tried to reload his pistol one-handed.

Matasareanu was further up the street and likely did not know his partner was dead. Police had shot out the tires of his car, so he tried unsuccessfully to car-jack several vehicles. Matasareanu fired in the general direction of a pickup truck, and the driver fled. However, the driver had disabled the vehicle by shutting off the gas tank pumps. Before Matasareanu limped to the truck, he pulled out a new weapon, an AR-15 rifle equipped with a 100-round magazine. Three LAPD Metro SWAT officers drove towards him, intending to help some wounded officers. Matasareanu fired several rounds at the officers before getting into the truck. He tried to start it, but he soon exited the vehicle. He then ran behind the hood of his car and began firing wildly again. The three SWAT officers took cover behind their car and fired at Matasareanu's unprotected feet and legs. Other police officers began firing from the side streets and nearby houses. Finally, after being shot 29 times, Matasareanu collapsed and fell against the hood of his getaway car. When the SWAT moved in to arrest the gunman, he was still alive and yelling obscenities at them.

The Final Outcome

Approximately 370 LAPD officers were involved in the 40-minute shootout and the investigation afterwards. Twelve police officers, eight civilians, and one civilian dog were wounded. Miraculously, only two people were severely wounded, and they survived their injuries. Larry Phillips was shot 11 times and Matasareanu was shot 29 times. Their Kevlar body armour prevented many of the handgun bullets and shotgun pellets from incapacitating them. As a result, the two men were able to fire hundreds of rounds of high-powered ammunition in their desperate attempt to escape.

Subsequent police investigations into this incident revealed that the LAPD officers were at a significant disadvantage due to a lack of firepower. The multiple layers of body armour worn by Phillips and Matasareanu enabled them to sustain multiple hits from police pistol bullets without being immediately incapacitated.

Other less-lethal weapons available at the time, such as tear gas and pepper spray, were not practical due to the dynamic nature of the threat. Had the suspects barricaded themselves in a house, the police could have set up a perimeter and eventually used tear gas to help in their apprehension. Because both suspects were continuously moving and firing automatic weapons throughout the neighbourhood as they attempted to escape, police officers were forced to return fire with their service pistols and shotguns. Tear gas or pepper spray would have had no effect.

Police service dogs were also impractical in this situation because of the extreme nature of the threat. Any police dog that may have attempted to capture the suspects would have likely been shot immediately by the men with their high-powered weapons.

- Image Source: Edmonton Police Service

In June 1998, the Edmonton Police Service (EPS) was informed that a suicidal man wearing no shirt, black sweat pants, and runners was discharging a shotgun in his backyard. Police determined the man was 20-year-old Chad Yurko. When patrol officers arrived, they confronted Yurko as he was walking on a pathway behind his home. Yurko pointed his shotgun at police, saying he wanted to commit suicide. Officers demanded that he put the gun down, but Yurko continually refused.

Police retreated and called in the EPS Tactical Unit. Patrol officers watched as Yurko began moving toward a large playing field shared by three schools. As Yurko made his way to the field, he began waving his gun and firing rounds aimlessly into the air. When Yurko got to the field, he pointed the gun briefly at several teens and then fired into the air again. Yurko made his way towards Bishop Savaryn elementary school. As he did so, he yelled that he wanted to kill himself and put the gun in his mouth briefly. Fortunately, the playing field was empty because the school’s outdoor fun day ended earlier than scheduled. Police notified the school of the situation, telling administration to keep all the children and staff inside.

Patrol officers followed Yurko as closely as they could. This was difficult because the empty field provided officers no cover. Officers had only handguns and one shotgun. They had no long-range weapons with which they could stop Yurko from getting closer to the school. Because Yurko was getting dangerously close to the school, police decided to release a police service dog to subdue the deranged man.

Constable Randy Goss and his canine partner Caesar, a 6 year-old Rottweiller, had arrived at the scene earlier. As Yurko walked towards the school, Constable Goss and Caesar got closer to Yurko while his back was turned. Constable Goss released Caesar. He ran full speed towards the gunman. A split second before Caesar would have jumped on Yurko’s back, the gunman turned and shot Caesar point blank in the face. Caesar fell to the ground. Three officers moved toward Yurko and began shooting to prevent the man from shooting Constable Goss who was nearby. Yurko was soon subdued after being wounded by shotgun pellets to the head and upper leg. He was taken to hospital where he underwent surgery. Caesar was taken to an emergency veterinary clinic. However, his injuries were fatal. Chad Yurko survived his gunshot injuries. He was charged and later sentenced to 2.5 years in prison.

The incident took 15 minutes. The EPS tactical squad arrived after the suspect had been apprehended. If the EPS tactical squad had arrived earlier, the scenario would have likely played out much differently because they are equipped with high-powered rifles. The tactical squad searched Yurko’s house and found a rifle.

Constable Randy Goss was emotionally shaken by the incident because he had raised Caesar since he was 10 weeks old. They had spent every day together. Off duty, Caesar was a friendly family pet who loved to lick the faces of Randy and his family. At work, Caesar was all business. As a result, he was a formidable and successful police service dog. Caesar is viewed as a hero because he gave up his life to protect others.