Lesson 2: Thinking and Memory

Lesson Objectives

            The student will learn about...

• Special First Memories and Personal Memories
• The Brain
• Right Brain/Left Brain
• Tools For Thinking: Language and Symbols
• Thinking Basics
• Thinking Processes – Remembering
• Thinking Processes – Reasoning
• Thinking Processes – Critical Thinking
• Problems with Thinking
• Communication Problems: Dyslexia
• Concentration Problems: Attention Deficit Disorder
• Interrelating Problems: Autism
• The Element of Colour

Introduction

In the lesson content you will come across some terms in maroon color that are bolded. Look them up in the course Glossary.

Some of this lesson was created using material from General Psychology 20, Alberta Distance Learning Centre.

Overview

Thought and language are two tools used every minute of the waking day. Humans’ very advanced form of thinking sets us apart from all other kinds of animals. Language, too, is a very special mode of human communication for expressing emotions, abstract thoughts, and useful day-to-day information. Consider just one aspect of our life– leisure–and consider the immense changes that would occur without language. The restrictions would be overwhelming! With the multitude of people that populate the earth, could we survive without a complex system of thought and language even if we were to regress to the very simplest lifestyle?

Lesson 2 focuses on several topics:

• First Memories
• The Brain: Thinking Power
• Left Brain/Right Brain
• Tools for Thinking: Language and Symbols
• Thinking Basics
• Thinking Processes: Remembering
• Thinking Processes: Reasoning
• Thinking Processes: Critical Thinking
• Thinking Problems: Forgetting
• Communication Problems: Dyslexia
• Concentration Problems: Attention Deficiency Disorder
• Interrelating Problems: Autism
• The Element of Colour

 

Before we begin this lesson, think about some of the useful learning techniques that were presented. One of the values of learning is to apply knowledge to bring about improvements and make a difference. To learn something beneficial and not use it as a waste.

Take a few minutes. You are expected to exercise your brain before you begin because this lesson is mentally challenging.

Remember to use these techniques with all your future lessons to build your learning power skills.

1 - Special First Memories and Personal Memories

Some people solemnly swear they can clearly remember events from their earliest babyhood. Other people have the odd memory of episodes in their preschool days especially if the event was full of emotion—moving to a new house, death of a pet, an injury, or the birth of a new sibling. Many people can recall the drama of their first day of school. Other people stare blankly for a while and then say, “Well, I don’t remember anything until I was about 9 or 10 years old.”

The early memories we salvage have an interesting background. First, language is a key factor. Getting the memories into an oral language and being able to talk to someone about them is important for remembering. What about people who say that through hypnosis they are able to remember events from their early infancy? These are not accurate pictures. An infant does not possess a developed memory. Some people say they were able to understand a conversation that is beyond the capacity of a young child. In general, we usually do not store an event in our memory when we are at the pre-verbal stage before we have developed a basic language structure. Neurons play a central part in memory.

Neurons connect to other neurons and form cell assemblies. Memories derive from the interactions of cell assemblies. Young children cannot recall memories of their early childhood because the cell assemblies have not yet developed. Because no two cell assemblies are organized in the same way, each person’s cell assemblies are unique in that aspect.

Can you portray an accurate description of what went on as an adult looking back at childhood memories? In general, you cannot. If you find a diary from your earlier years, you may be quite astonished at the discrepancies between your view of the event as a young person and what you have stored in your memory as an adult. Would you want a perfect memory? Would you want every event that happened to you to be stored accurately and recalled with perfect detail and emotion? What about the pain of an event? We benefit from not having perfect memories and from memories that change or diminish over time.

Much of our lives are so boring and routine that they never get into our memories in the first place. For example, we get up, wash, dress, eat breakfast, and leave for school or for work. None of those everyday routines are memorable unless something unusual happens.

What can we do to keep our memories alive and fresh? Some memories just endure because we enjoy them; we talk about them. Family photo albums are important records and diaries help to keep memories fresh in our minds.

How Memories Form

2 - The Brain

The brain is an incredibly complex physiological organ. The brain works every moment of our lives performing many functions simultaneously—processing our thoughts, emotions, and imagination. The brain also monitors critical functions to maintain the overall health of the body. Our general social and cultural knowledge is processed by the brain so that we may interact in a productive way with other members of our society. It may seem the brain is put together in a rigid, defined way, but the brain’s connections are modified by the experiences we have. Learning actually changes the structure of the brain. Therefore, the more we learn, the more unique we become. One might say that the actual “wiring” of the brain is affected by school and life experiences.

Many aspects of the brain remain a mystery, but here are some general principles. The brain resists having meaningless or disorganized patterns imposed on it. Concentrating too heavily on the storage and recall of unconnected facts is a very inefficient use of the brain. The brain works best under conditions of relaxed alertness. This means the most productive conditions favour an atmosphere that is low in threat and high in challenge. Under perceived threat, we literally lose access to portions of our brain. The brain seems to be shocked into a state where thinking power is drained away.

Information that is directly presented to the brain is absorbed. But the ability of the brain goes much beyond that to absorb information and signals that lie in the realm of peripheral. Subtle signals that are not consciously noticed are also detected. This means that the brain responds to the entire sensory context. We remember what we experience—not just what we are told. Synergy means our experiences through sight, hearing, movement, and symbols are all synthesized or drawn together by the brain. The result is intuition, insight, and creativity. The whole spectrum of information processed directly or indirectly by the brain influences motives and decisions.

3 - Right Brain/Left Brain

Recent studies of thinking have revealed that 85% of our brain is devoted to sensing, feeling, and emotion. Only 15% is devoted to cognitive reasoning. However, the school system emphasizes the narrower aspect of cognitive reasoning leaving a large part of our brain’s potential unchallenged.

The human brain is divided into two main parts or hemispheres, the left and the right. The brain theory suggests that each hemisphere specializes in different kinds of conscious awareness. The right hemisphere or right brain (these terms will be used interchangeably) seems to govern artistic talents, intuitive thought, and spatial orientation. In other words, the right hemisphere handles most of the creativity. It operates in a random fashion. The right hemisphere is the centre for thinking that occurs by process of intuitive judgment.  

The left hemisphere or left brain appears to be mainly responsible for logical thought, language, and analytic processes. That is, the left hemisphere responds to problem solving and rational assessments.

The nerve tissues of the corpus callosum join the hemispheres. The activities of the two hemispheres are completely independent and uncoordinated. On the contrary, the two hemispheres are well integrated for smooth functioning.

Most of you have preferred brain activities (left or right), but you manage to do many of the tasks related to the other hemisphere. How can the idea of different mental functions for each hemisphere be tested? People have been given different mental tasks, and while they are involved in the tasks, the brain waves are monitored. Tiny electrical waves are emitted by each hemisphere depending on the mental activity taking place. The human brain is complex and incredible!

4 - Tools For Thinking: Language and Symbols

Language and thought are of utmost importance for the high quality of life we experience as human beings. Both language and thought contribute to survival, smooth functioning of interpersonal relationships, and the all-round progress we enjoy.

Language has the power to convey practical information, values, emotions, ideals, noble thoughts, humour, and entertainment. If you have ever watched or participated in a game of charades, you will know the frustration of trying to express a thought without verbal language.

The organization of the language system is very complex. A language system is established by using an arbitrary selection of sounds to indicate meaning. Rigid rules for the sounds and the words must be obeyed because both the listener and speaker must understand and accept the meaning of the terms and definitions if communication is to be effective. If any one of these elements fail, the language system breaks down.

Language employs symbols. A symbol is something used for or regarded as representing something else. It could be an object, a gesture, or a sound. A symbol may be an emblem, token, sign, flag, pin, badge, logo, or a diagram, just to name a few. Symbols enable us to manipulate ideas in the thinking process.

In summary, what are some of the most significant benefits of language?

• Language enhances our recollection of past experiences. This ability facilitates thinking. It allows us to organize and review information so problems may be easily solved. For example, you say to yourself, “What did I do the last time I had a similar problem?”
• More precise and accurate descriptions of objects and events are possible through language that sharpens our awareness and attention. For example, when you put names to feelings, they become more focused; e.g., nostalgia means thinking of the past with fond memories.
• Language establishes and builds group unity. The uniqueness of the language a group chooses sharpens the feelings of belonging. For example, the drug group utilized special slang terms to identify the “in” group. Drug related terms were frequently changed to keep the group isolated from outsiders as well. Sometimes language can be used in discriminatory ways. How would your group react to someone who joined them and spoke with a heavy foreign accent?
• Language can be used as a means of control through the use of direct requests, orders, and commands. For example, instructions on an exam, verbal commands by a superior, or a TV appeal supporting a worthy cause are all effective in directing our behaviour. Indirect, subtle methods of controlling behaviour through language are also evident. For example, the language of advertising is a fascinating example of this. A popular celebrity uses Brand X and we consider buying it the next time we shop.

5 - Thinking Basics

Two categories of behaviour are important:

Explicit Behaviour:
This is behaviour that is easily observed and measured. Explicit behaviour is sometimes referred to as overt behaviour. When you think of the word overt, think of open or easily seen. For example, any behaviour involving strenuous muscular activity such as a man lifting a heavy box is explicit behaviour. Raising your hand to answer a question is also overt.

Implicit Behaviour:
Implicit behaviour is not easily observable by another person and is usually only detected with the aid of special sensitive measuring instruments. It is sometimes referred to as covert behaviour. When you see the word covert, think of covered or hidden behaviour. For example, one’s face remains expressionless but the pupils of the eyes dilate to indicate mild surprise. It could be detected by the use of special instruments. When a person thinks about how to solve a puzzle, the observer cannot see this individual’s thinking processes.

Implicit Speech:
Implicit speech refers to the tiny muscular reactions that are produced while the individual is engaged in thinking. If you look closely, you can see the vocal chords moving. The person is said to be sub-vocalizing while reading; it is inbetween oral reading and genuine silent reading. Implicit speech has two vital roles; it receives and assimilates external stimuli and it processes data internally.

So what is thinking? Thinking is part of everything we do. Thinking is the mental processes and skills we use to shape our lives. Thinking is not an occasional mental activity. It goes on all the time without awareness. Thinking organizes reality for us. It creates alternative realities we might hope to achieve or avoid; that is, it brings images to us of the way things might be if we proceed in certain directions.

The brain has various localized centres for vision, sensory responses, or certain muscular reactions, but it does not appear to have a localized thought centre. Localized means that we can pinpoint a specific area responsible for each of those functions.

Thinking is the most complex activity that people perform. It is more than just perception or an awareness of the environment. Thinking is an implicit behaviour by which an individual becomes aware of and manipulates past experiences by means of symbols. This allows us to review the choices we have and make the best decisions possible.

6 - Thinking Processes – Remembering

Mystery and wonder at the workings of the human mind have frequently been stated. If we did not have memory, language would disappear and so would our meaningful communication with others. Without memory, no intellectual functioning is possible. We could not utilize past experiences to improve our current situations. Perhaps the operation of our memory system is better understood with the explanation that memory can be subdivided into three sections:

Sensory Memory:
memory pertaining to the senses such as the smell of a particular flower, the taste of chocolate cake, or the touch of silk

Motor-skill Memory:
memory concerning the remembered response of doing something physical such as walking, skating, riding a bike, or turning a somersault

Verbal Memory:
memory involving everything a person has thought, read, or heard

Retention means something is kept or remembered. It means holding on to what has been learned. Our capacity for retention in sensory and motor-skill memory is extremely powerful.

Unfortunately verbal memory is not as easy to master as the other two and must be approached more diligently. Verbal memory comes in two forms: short term or active and long term. The terms are self-explanatory. Short term memory initially collects and examines data, but long term memory is really the key to learning.

All the information we receive first goes into short term memory where it can be recalled very easily. Because we receive so much information everyday, it can be stored in short term memory for only a brief period of time. Some of that information is successfully coded so it can be transferred to long term memory. Some information that goes into long term memory seems to be forgotten. One explanation is that the information may never have reached long term memory. Another reason is that the right cues may never presented to call up the information that has been stored possibly under a variety of headings in long term memory. Thus, a person’s retrieval skills are weak. Long term memories seem to decay less than short term, but they are more subject to interference and distortion from competing memories.

The likelihood of information getting into long term storage is greater with the smaller the amount of material presented. The more novel it is, the more actively it is rehearsed, and the greater its significance in helping the individual cope with environmental demands. For example, most married couples can clearly remember the moment they became engaged because it has such significance for their lives.

Most psychologists agree that memory is of at least three major kinds:

• semantic memory (knowledge and facts, the seat of wisdom when making decisions and judgments)
  It does not decline with age, rather it grows.
• implicit memory (for skills one exercises automatically such as speaking correctly grammatically or hitting a golf ball)
  They are mental activities that occur spontaneously without making an intentional effort; they do not decline either.
• episodic memory (knowledge of specific events)
  It may decline but that could be reversible.

Episodic memory is stable until the person reaches 60 years. At that point it may slowly decline, That may be due to retirement and the fact that people do not usually exercise their mental faculties as much after they stop working. Many people develop strategies that compensate for the decline, such as making lists, leaving things in routine places, or checking memories with others from time to time.

Here are some tips to sharpen your memory:

• Pay attention and be interested in the first phases of learning something.
    Get it right from the start!
• Create links and associations between chunks of material.
    Anchor new data to information you already know.
• Keep your mind challenged with stimulating activity.
    The nerve connections that assist memory grow stronger with use.
• Concentrate on what you really need to remember, and do not try to remember everything.
• Schedule frequent reviews, and go over tricky information that you must know.
• Use helpful memory aids, such as lists or a small notebook.
• Pace yourself when learning so that you are not trying to cover too much data all at once.

7 - Thinking Processes – Reasoning

Reasoning is the cornerstone of good decision-making. Reasoning is the process of forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences from facts or premises (the specific examples that are used as a starting point). Before reasoning is used, we must have cognition. Cognition is the act or process of knowing, understanding data; it is to become conscious of something. The reasoning process may point to a previous answer, a modification of earlier solutions, or a unique idea.

There are two types of reasoning: inductive and deductive. In each case the individuals sort the information they have at hand in two different ways to reach a solution. With inductive reasoning, the individual processes information by moving from specific individual cases to general principles. The thinker is moving from the known to the unknown. From the specific examples that are known, the thinker formulates a new hypothesis about what future observations may reveal. Inductive reasoning uses repeated experience with a particular situation to draw a conclusion about all similar situations.

The other type of reasoning is deductive reasoning. With deductive reasoning, the individual processes information by moving from general principles to specific cases or consequences. Deductive reasoning is essentially a matter of putting two and two together. The general rule is tested on separate occasions and its application to separate cases is judged. To make sense of our world, we notice patterns in the way things happen. 

8 - Thinking Processes – Critical Thinking

All thinking depends on knowledge. If we know enough, we are always capable of critical thinking. But if we can make no sense of what we are trying to think about, critical thinking is impossible. Critical thinking is an attitude or frame of mind rather than a skill. It is a desire for or habit of determining the authenticity, accuracy, and worth of information. Thinking critically is not a process we switch on or off, but it is an inseparable part of thought on every occasion.

Critical thinkers must be ready to doubt, to challenge what is held to be true.The opposite of a critical thinker is a passive individual who accepts whatever he or she is told. A willingness to challenge ideas depends on a cluster of personal factors such as perseverance, readiness to pause and reflect, openness to controversy, relationships with other people, and image of oneself. Critical thinking challenges the status quo and examines personal beliefs.

Critical thinking requires a sharp assessment distinguishing between statements of fact and statements of opinion. For example, Labrador retrievers are a type of dog (fact); they are the most loyal dogs a person can own (opinion). Opinions may parade as facts and so might intentional, outright lies. We cannot distinguish facts and opinions except to have a thorough knowledge about the subject.

Here are some of the key components of critical thinking.

9 - Problems with Thinking

Forgetting: Forgetting has usually been viewed as a more complex, less easily understood phenomenon than remembering. Forgetting is an active process; it is not a passive one where we are simply the helpless victims of memory loss. For example, you forget the time you kicked a soccer ball into a big table full of food at the family picnic. Memory not only reproduces what has been stored, but it also produces information on its own, which means that memory changes some of the data when it is brought out of storage.

What causes forgetting to occur? First, forgetting is part of the normal memory system. It is nature’s defense against a bombardment of too much information. When the necessary cues or stimuli required to recall the data are not supplied, the memory remains lost. This does not mean that the information is permanently erased–just that it will remain dormant until a very powerful stimulus can be used to activate memory. Sometimes forgotten material may sink to unconscious levels, causing emotional conflicts for the individual. For example, if a young child is molested, that awful memory may be forgotten for many years. Occasionally, certain types of brain surgery must be performed with the patient conscious but under partial anaesthetic. When certain areas of the brain are touched with surgical instruments, long forgotten memories are recalled by the patient.

Learning a new piece of information is difficult. To forget some of the information we have learned in the past is disheartening. These factors will have an impact on the forgetting process.

Inattention: In some cases people do not give full attention to the learning situation in the initial stages. The information is not properly anchored in the short-term memory to enable it to move into long-term memory. Therefore, because of inattention, they never learn the material properly in the first place. In the final analysis, the quality of the original learning can never be underestimated in promoting learning and detaining forgetting.

Retroactive inhibition: What we have just learned may interfere with previous learning. Retroactive inhibition seems to cause the greatest interference when new learning is very similar to the original learning. Because the pieces of information are so much the same, they get mixed together. For example, you are memorizing a grocery list for this week, and once that is complete, you decide to memorize one for next week. You may have difficulty recalling the items from the first week by themselves if there is some overlap between the two lists.

Proactive inhibition: Previous learning may interfere with new learning. The sequence of interference is reversed from that of retroactive inhibition. The main idea in this theory is that the original learning is so powerfully fixed in the mind that new data is less easily assimilated. For example, in English a certain letter such as ‘j” has a particular sound. Then you study Spanish and find that the sound of ‘j’ is quite different. You may make many mistakes because your instruction in English dominantes what you are trying to learn in Spanish.

Motivated forgetting: Motivation to complete unfinished work has been well documented. In one experiment a group of subjects was asked to work on a number of simple tasks. Some tasks they were allowed to finish, others were interrupted by the experimenter before the final stages. Later, the subjects were asked to remember the tasks they were doing. Surprisingly, they remembered more of the unfinished tasks. What is the reason? One explanation is that an individual becomes involved in a taskand creates motivation to complete the task at hand. The memory is sharpened by the motivation (and frustration) of knowing something was left undone that the subject wishes another chance to do. The Zeigarnik effect is the theory that incompleted tasks are remembered longer than completed tasks. They nag at our mind until we get them done.

A later experiment cast some new light on incompleted tasks. Subjects were given a number of tasks, some especially difficult, which invariably gave them trouble and led to some anxiety. Subjects were interrupted part way through the difficult tasks. Later, when asked to list the tasks they were doing, the subjects remembered less of the difficult ones because these tasks had caused anxiety and the subjects had little hope of completing them successfully anyway. In more general terms, if material to be learned is associated with failure at a task, the ability to recall information is reduced. By the same token, success at a task increases the ability to recall information.

10 - Communication Problems: Dyslexia

The problem of dyslexia is the most common of all learning and communication problems. About 10% to 20% of the population have some form of dyslexia. It is more likely to be a male condition by a ratio of 3:1. Dyslexia comes from the Latin word ‘dys’ meaning bad or difficult and ‘lexia’ meaning language. Dyslexia is not a thinking problem but rather a reading disability that has a carry-over through the whole language program including reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Dyslexia is not the result of brain damage or nerve damage. It is the product of a special mode of thought and a natural reaction to confusion.

Dyslexia is divided into three different categories: visual, auditory, and a combination of the two. Visual is the most common. The dyslexic person is prone to be a tactile, hands-on person, which means that one must touch or feel objects or in many cases to be involved with projects in a nonabstract way. Dyslexics may display some of the following characteristics: delay in learning to talk, inadequate spoken language, difficulty in learning and remembering printed words, reversal of some letters (b,d,p,q) or the order of letters in words, reversal of numbers (very common), prolonged delay in establishing right/left handedness, confusion about directions (right/left), difficulty in recalling a desired word when speaking or writing, deficient skills in the mechanics and organization of written composition, and/or cramped or illegible handwriting.

Restoring a person’s self-esteem is truly the most important part of undoing dyslexia and other learning problems. If the dyslexic person is older, he or she has lived with failure longer and usually self-esteem is quite low. Labelling a child in the absence of any formal diagnosis is especially harmful. The dyslexia specialist first looks for large gaps between math skills, performance skills, spelling, writing, and/or reading skills. Dyslexics inherently perceive more and formulate mental concepts faster than other people. They excel in arts, architecture, engineering, strategy, and invention. They can perceive imagination as reality. This form of intuitive thought is the foundation of genius. Famous people with dyslexia include Albert Einstein, Winston Churchill, Jackie Stewart (a racing driver), Tom Cruise, George Burns, Whoopi Goldberg, and Cher.

11 - Concentration Problems: Attention Deficit Disorder

Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) is characterized by a serious, persistent difficulty with poor attention span, weak impulse control, and hyperactivity. Neurobiological data indicates that ADD is deeply rooted in the central nervous system. A certain portion of the brain is responsible for attention, handwriting, motor control, and inhibition responses. The rate at which the brain uses glucose, its main energy source, is lower in persons with ADD. However, no single factor has been established as being responsible for triggering ADD.

This condition usually appears before seven years of age. It is far more prevalent in males than females. ADD is often misunderstood as willful misbehaviour or lack of effort at a task or a refusal to take an interest in the world. Symptoms in 30 to 70% of the patients continue into adulthood.

Symptoms of ADD include the following:

• fails to give close attention to details
• often does not seem to listen
• does not follow through with instructions
• has difficulty organizing tasks
• loses things
• is easily distracted by outside stimuli
• is forgetful of daily activities
• fidgets
• may talk excessively
• may interrupt others

Children with ADD are vulnerable to failure in the two most important arenas for developmental mastery—school and peer relations. ADD has often been inaccurately portrayed as a type of specific learning disability. It is not. Children with ADD do not have trouble learning. However, they do have difficulty performing in school due to poor organization, impulsiveness, and inattention. Children with ADD do not routinely show signs of serious emotional disturbances, but they may exhibit problems with self-esteem if not properly treated.

Adults with ADD are often undiagnosed or misdiagnosed. This can lead to low selfesteem, increased frustration, and educational failure. Years of struggling with ADD might increase the risk of drug abuse and depression. Adults with ADD are restless, easily distracted, have difficulty concentrating, are impulsive and impatient, and may be short tempered, disorganized, and have career difficulties. Adults can benefit by structuring their environment. For example, they can use an appointment book, tape recorder, make a list of tasks, and learn time-management skills. They can eliminate negative self-statements and enlist a friend to provide some constructive feedback.

12 - Interrelating Problems: Autism

Autism is a neurological brain disorder in which behaviour, communication, and social interactions are severely disrupted. Autism is caused by an underlying physical dysfunction within the brain or central nervous system. The chief difficulty for a child with autism seems to lie with processing information. The brain in autistic people does not function normally, and the required messages about the outside world are not sent or are mixed up. The world and its signals are confusing to them.

Autism is a disorder one is born with; a genetic component is at work. It is not due to poor parenting skills. True autism appears before the age of three. Symptoms vary greatly from individual to individual. Many mildly autistic people have probably never been diagnosed. People with autism range from mild to severe. Social and communication skills can in the severely autistic be almost nonexistent. In early years some autistics show little interest in bonding with their parents. They may resist being hugged and may want to avoid physical contact or even eye contact. They do not respond normally to the senses—sounds are not heard, words carry no meaning, and background noise is deafening to them. They appear to withdraw from sensory stimulation. Often anything outside the routine is threatening and, therefore, they resist environmental changes. They appear to withdraw from sensory stimulation. Some have inappropriate attachments to objects or engage in obsessive or repetitive behaviours such as rocking or head banging. Unfortunately, their obsessive behaviour does not break the barrier of unexpressed emotions. Autistic people pay little attention to many things, but they overreact to others. They may appear not to respond to injury or obvious danger. Autistic people 1do such things as repeat words back to people, have tantrums, or get extremely upset for no apparent reason. They are sometimes picky eaters. They have strong preferences regarding clothing. Most children with autism do not explore and seem to lack curiosity.

Line correction

Although autism is a lifetime condition, with special training, supervision, and support, many adults with autism can live and work in the community. Early intervention is very important. Parents can contact the Autistic Society for support and assistance. Be wary of people advertising miracle cures, or interventions that don’t have a lot of hours one-on-one. In programs with intensive one on one therapy, the child is constantly told to focus or pay attention as some simple task is performed. Sometimes these children develop strategies to remind them to focus and pay attention such as pointing at the teacher to get them to look at the teacher and concentrate on what the teacher is saying. The autistic child may also have to be taught appropriate gestures. For example, when most people ask the question, “Are you going over there?”, they reinforce what they are saying by pointing with their index finger. The autistic child must be taught these gestures. Interventions that use any kind of aversion or punishment must be avoided because the autistic child is not a child who is being naughty. With an intensive program, some autistic problems can be reduced by the time a child enters school.

Line correction

Line Correctio

Line Correction

13 - The Element of Colour

We often dismiss colour as a superficial, unimportant element of our environment— unlike thinking.

Colour has an impact on our lives and may even influence the quality of our thoughts. Everyone has their favourite colours. What colour are your bedroom walls? What are the dominant colours in your bedroom? What clothing colours attract you first when you are shopping?

Colour has a definite impact on the mind, the body, energy levels, health, and your mood. Light energy stimulates some of the glands that regulate hormones. Colour preferences are often affected by past memories, experiences, and associations. To a large extent, our culture affects some of the colour choices we make. In our culture, white is used to suggest purity, but in Japan it is associated with mourning. Red is the bridal colour in both India and China.

Our eyes see the colour, but our entire body senses it because blind people often have very similar colour associations. Which colours promote thinking? Red stimulates brain development in the early years of infancy, helping the brain make connections between the two hemispheres. Yellow stimulates memory and is the colour that first gains our attention. Yellow has been reported to stimulate the left hemisphere of the brain. Brown enhances conversation. Green helps us feel accepted and welcomed (except for lime green, which is too intense). Light blue has a calming affect, and thinking-related activities are best undertaken in an atmosphere of quiet tranquillity.

The number one colour choice for clothing across the population is blue. Blue is the colour of authority, and so is black. Black demands respect for its sense of power. For example, many police uniforms are a shade of dark blue. In Canada, both judge and lawyers wear long, flowing black robes when they are in court. A common colour dominating fast-food restaurants is orange because it stimulates the appetite. How many fast food outlets can you think of with bright orange as a dominant colour?

Pink has some interesting effects on the body. A colour called bubble gum pink has been used effectively in hospitals, drug centres, and prisons to calm people. It has been reported that when left in a pink room for a long time, people get drowsy and may even fall asleep. Pink is the beauty colour and has the effect of making foods taste sweeter to us.

Think about the power of colour in some of the decisions you make. It is not simply a secondary factor; it may have more significance than you realize.

Assignment  - U2L2 Quiz Part A and B.

For each assignment, there is a part A and part B. 

• Part A - read the first lesson on "Thinking and Memory".  Answer the questions in the following document Unit 2 Lesson 2 Part A and maintain your answers for completing the final assignment. (do NOT submit).  
• Part B - complete part B (open book) by clicking on the following link - Unit 2 Lesson 2, Part B Quiz.

Lesson Review

In this challenging Lesson, you learned details about the following.