Lesson 1: Roles and Group Influences

Lesson Objectives

            The student will learn about...

• What is a Role?
• How do Roles Differ?
• How are Roles Learned?
• What Causes Role Conflicts?
• What is Androgyny?
• How Role Changes Lead to Improvements
• Rites of Passage and Birth Order
• How Important is the Group?
• Our Membership in the Family
• Peer Groups and Their Influence
• Group Classification
• Group Decisions and Influences
• Leadership
• Small Group Dynamics – Communication and Unity
• Negative Side of Groups
• Being Outside the Group – Dealing with Bullies, Unemployment
• Positive Side of Groups
• Winning with People

Introduction

This lesson was created using material from General Psychology 20, Student Module Booklet, Alberta Distance Learning Centre.

Overview

The first part of this lesson examines roles and how they influence our behaviour. Because human beings are social animals, the influence of others is a major focus of the later part of this lesson. Groups have a tremendous influence in shaping our attitudes, our thoughts, and ultimately our behaviour.

1 - What is a Role?

This famous quotation may be familiar to you:

Because the first part of your lesson focuses on roles, to begin with a clear understanding of the meaning of the term role is important. A role is “a part, a character, or a function that is taken or assumed by anyone”. Therefore, a role involves action, behaviour, and activities.

When choosing a role, a person does not have the option of adding and deleting from the role as they choose. One accepts the role as a package deal. Certain restrictions, benefits, and responsibilities come with any role a person willingly assumes. For example, you cannot decide to be a good friend to someone and prefer not to assist the person or offer them any emotional support in the tough times. Roles are sets of expectations that are prescribed for a person. If a person steps outside the established rules regarding that role, he or she risks the possibility of being labelled deviant. Sometimes deviant behaviour is not proper but harmless such as purposely wearing a Tshirt with a nasty message to your graduation ceremonies. Sometimes deviant behaviour can be harmful, immoral, illegal, or vicious. For example, when the referee at one international soccer match called a bad game, he was shot to death by a fanatical fan. Another example of a milder form of deviance: you are a parent to a young child; that is an extremely, important role. You decide you do not want to give guidance and direction to the child but prefer to be “best friends” instead of acting like a parent.

Roles are interdependent behaviour patterns. Roles exist in an interlocking system or network. You have one role that must intermesh with several other roles so things will go smoothly. Some deviations in roles are critical because they can upset the whole system. For example, if you are a cashier at a department store, that is one of your roles. Others play the roles of customers and expect you to record their purchases, take their money or credit cards, and package the items. If you do not provide service to the customer (unless the reason is a legitimate one), your boss will want to know why you are jeopardizing the system. Another example: You are a teenage son or daughter— certain chores are assigned to you. Your parents have roles as well that are part of the network of family obligations.

Every social relationship is defined by being a set or a pair of roles. Reciprocity is the key word when studying the obligations of a relationship. Roles operate on a delicate balance of inputs and outputs. Cooperation is the key. One partner’s obligations are the other person’s right. Every member of a system is assigned certain tasks. At the same time, the person is entitled to receive services from others in return for the contributions the person has made. In this way, relationships have a personal value in satisfying one’s own goals. For example, as a student, you expect your assignments to be read by the teacher and that you will receive useful feedback. The reciprocal role of your teacher involves the expectation that you will remain on topic when answering questions and that you will phrase your ideas in readable forms.

2 - How do Roles Differ?

Four basic criteria are involved in the description of roles. Sex, age, kinship, and common residence are factors important in defining many of our roles.

Roles: Sex

All human societies follow certain rules in assigning tasks that are appropriate for each of the sexes. The rules for “correct” sexual roles vary from one society to the next.

In modern industrial societies, the sexual division of labour for everyday household duties varies from family to family. In some households, both spouses share duties interchangeably. In other cases, the male does outside work and the female does inside chores. In peasant or tribal societies where the household has the added burden of producing goods for market, the division of labour by sex is usually dictated by a list of rules.

Let’s visit a husband and wife in a primitive Bushman society to see how they organize their daily activities. Their extremely harsh environment makes it imperative that each person strictly follow his or her role obligations. To deviate from their organized division of labour could put their survival in doubt.

These activities are interdependent and reciprocal. Each person has a clear understanding of what duties are expected of each one according to sex.

Cultural variation is clear in the practice of assigning roles to men and women. Some interesting examples illustrate cultural variation in the tasks assigned to men and women.

Hopi: Women do house building and look after house repairs. Men spin and weave cloth to make clothing for both men and women.

Navaho: Men weave ceremonial garments. Women do the everyday spinning and weaving.

Zulu: Women work in the fields, planting and harvesting the grain. Men look after the cattle.

Nuer: Men herd the cattle. Only women are allowed to milk the cattle.

These examples indicate that many roles that men and women are assigned cannot be explained in terms of differences in the physical characteristics of the sexes. Many roles are assigned arbitrarily to each sex by their culture. That means there is no clear reasons for the choices that are made; the roles seem to be sorted in a random way. In some cultures strong superstitions enforce the decisions about who is allowed to do what. But before we pass judgment on these people for being narrow-minded, are we really any different if we hesitate to picture a woman dentist?

Nevertheless, our society is gradually breaking from the strict division of roles—one for men and one for women. Women seem more flexible about breaking old barriers and moving into areas of work that were once considered for “men only”. Why do you think men are more reluctant to assume new tasks that were once viewed as “women’s work”? To answer that question we have to understand the concept of status. Status refers to one’s position of importance.

In many societies, the status of men is higher than the status of women. Women have seldom been given dominance over men (except for rare cases where an individual woman has become ruler for unusual reasons). How a society determines the status of the sexes remains a mystery. Men’s higher status is not based on the fact that they make a more significant contribution to survival because in many cases that is clearly the women’s role. In some societies the status of the two sexes approaches equality; in others, the men remain dominant.

Two rules apply to all cultures. In all societies the rearing of infants is the speciality of women. In all societies the primary police or military force used to preserve order is provided by men who are specially trained to use weapons. Beyond these two principles, a number of different rules and variations are applied to roles regarding the sexes.

Roles: Age

Age is a significant factor in determining the status of roles. The child’s role responsibilities gradually increase with age until the person finally reaches adult status. Then, slowly the status of one’s role declines as old age approaches and the elderly lose power and prestige in the society. For example, some seniors complain that people do not appreciate the contributions seniors have made to the progress of our society.

Transitions from one age category to another are not very smooth or clear at times. Many teenagers complain that some days they are treated like children by their parents, and other times they are expected to act as adults. For example, a sixteen year-old girl feels bitter that she is expected to assume full adult responsibilities in preparing supper alone. Yet when she goes out with her friends, her parents try to impose a 10:00 p.m. curfew as if she were a young child.

The seniors in our society are also disturbed by their status that relates to the age factor. One day they are active, productive members of the work-force. Then, they reach retirement age and are pushed to the sidelines. Being old is not considered a glamorous or a significant role. In primitive societies, the elderly are made to feel special. They are treated as intellectuals and have a definite place in decision-making.

3 - How are Roles Learned?

Not all roles are learned. Some roles are ascribed. An ascribed role is one that is given to someone automatically, with no effort on the person’s part. For example, Queen Elizabeth II plays the role of queen because it was conferred upon her by inheritance.

Another example: you are automatically a son or a daughter to your parents. You do not have to learn the role or practise it; you receive that role the moment you are born.

Other roles are classified as achieved roles. They are acquired by the person through hard work, ambition, and merit. For example, the role a Prime Minister or President is achieved.

In summary, roles can be sorted into two categories. Ascribed roles are those that people are given automatically. Achieved roles must be attained through competition and individual effort. In a progressive society, achieved status is more important. Why is this true? Any society needs bright and talented people in key positions of leadership to progress. When a society is allowed to choose the most capable people instead of giving someone the position based on inheritance, the society is in the best position to make positive choices for its future success.

Our achieved roles are the ones that are learned. The question is How are they learned? Socialization during childhood acquaints us with our roles. This process refers to the notion that we develop clear ideas of what is appropriate behaviour and what is not accepted. We begin by learning how our families expect us to behave, and later we understand the expectations of our society as a whole. Ideas about proper behaviour become internalized or engrained within us to the point that we automatically accept these rules as the truth.

Parents and family are important sources of knowledge about roles. Playmates, the education system, the church, and the mass media are some other significant contacts that define roles and help the individual learn those roles. The process of identifying and imitating roles is simple and straight forward. A role is shown in a favourable way. If the appeal is great enough, the role is imitated. People are fairly impressionable in accepting new roles. For example, a little girl sees her mother hold and cuddle the baby and provide for its care. She may copy this behaviour with her doll. Later, she extends this role by caring for younger siblings.

One of the most important tasks we learn regarding our roles is gender identity. Will we look at life from the perspective of a female or a male? The child begins with selflabelling, that is understanding his or her own sex label, by three years of age. Clothing and hair styles as well as noticing a loose cluster of physical characteristics are the main criteria the child uses in determining the gender identity of others. This task may seem very simple but with unisex hair and clothing styles, the young child must make some fine distinctions. The development of a stable gender identification is usually completed by the age of five. Gender identity is distinctive in being the most stable and unchanging of all social identities. It is a very important developmental task that directs and modifies all other activities for the person.

The terms maleness-femaleness and masculinity-femininity are common. Maleness and femaleness are based on biological make-up of the body. Physical sexual characteristics (reproductive organs) are different and hormonal make-up is different. Masculinity and femininity are determined by our cultural perspective. Each culture has its own notion of what is masculine and what is feminine behaviour. Because masculinity and femininity are not determined genetically, they are expressed in a wide variety of ways.

4 - What Causes Role Conflicts?

Role conflicts occur for two basic reasons. One is that roles are misunderstood. During the socialization process, the person is not properly shown the duties and responsibilities of the role. Or, people view the role but chose to interpret it differently.

A more common reason for role conflicts is that society changes and so do our roles. The person does not remain up-to-date with what is considered appropriate behaviour. Today, children and young adults are allowed more freedom and given more opportunities. Those facts can raise the potential for role conflicts.

Constant change and rapid progress have contributed to the generation gap. The basis of the generation gap is differences in values and perspectives that lead to difficulty in communicating between different age levels. The result is lack of understanding that goes both ways. Our permissive society results in more lax ideas of discipline. This, in turn, causes children and young people to be more questioning of authority. How do these changes lead to more role conflicts within the family?

During the course of their upbringing, children are being exposed to many different institutions. When many different institutions share parenting responsibilities, a conflict of standards is inevitable. For example, the school and the home may be at odds over the proper handling of the child. The child then believes adult standards about roles are ambiguous.

The mass media is another source of role conflict between parent, child, and society. The mass media may portray certain lifestyles favourably, which can lead to strong disagreement from parents.

5 - What is Androgyny?

Earlier we learned that our gender identity is the foundation of our perspective on life. We also learned that sex roles are sorted into two groups—one for men and one for women. Is it possible to have a less rigid attitude toward our sex roles?

The term androgyny is a combination of andro-male and gyne-female. It removes the stereotypes we have for each sex and allows people the opportunity to combine the best traits of both men and women. Traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity put limitations on behaviour and how people can express themselves.

In our society, an adult must be independent, assertive, and self-reliant. However, traditional femininity frowns on women behaving in such ways. In addition, an adult must be sensitive, caring, and attuned to emotional needs. Traditional masculinity keeps men from expressing these personal needs. Androgyny combines the best of both abilities. It allows adults to be independent yet sensitive; they can be assertive yet open to the wishes of others. In other words, adults can be both masculine and feminine. Androgyny facilitates a superior standard of psychological health for the sexes. It unburdens people from sets of narrow views and narrow behaviours. Androgyny expands the horizons of both men and women. It permits people to cope effectively with a wide range of situations.

How does androgyny translate into actual role behaviours or activities? For example, androgyny means a man can arrange a business deal on his own, vacuum the family room, cuddle his children and read them bedtime stories, and do the family laundry. For example, androgyny means a woman can change the oil in her car, bake a casserole for someone who has been ill, and mow the lawn. Because many of the activities of men and women now overlap because of androgyny, both sexes should have a better understanding and appreciation of each other.

6 - How Role Changes Lead to Improvements

Commonly, women are employed outside the home. Men are assuming more household chores than they did in the past. How eager are both sexes to take on new duties? On the average, men do not want to change as much as women do. Because men generally have higher status roles, they gain little by the change, and they do not see the need for change as readily.

Today more women are pursuing high status careers, but few men are clamouring for the position of full-time homemaker. Because of our socialization, our first reaction to the male homemaker is likely negative. However, some men are terrific cooks, great domestic planners, and very patient and understanding with children.

Some women make superb business administrators. Modern companies and businesses must be more people-friendly. The Female Advantage means that feminine qualities bring valuable perspectives to the management of these businesses. The old system focused on hierarchial structures that were goal-oriented and power-based following the masculine view. Women often manage people in a collegial way. They gain ideas through consensus, which means power is shared by getting good opinions from all employees.

In addition, women employees may set positive examples for men on how to integrate work and family. Women’s increasing presence in business may encourage such positive changes as more job-sharing, more flexible work hours, and parental leave of absence for both men and women. Rather than precipitating role conflicts, the working mother can be a potential catalyst for a deeper understanding of the roles of husband and wife through shared obligations.

If people become too comfortable, they may begin to stagnate and to reject change. Role conflicts can arise because people are not willing or not able to change when the time is right to do so. The obstacles interfering with change are outdated values, lack of ability to adjust, and uncorrected mistakes that `have been passed on by previous generations. When conflict leads to change, people are motivated to examine their roles more carefully and seek ways of bringing about change for the sake of growth.

Role conflicts can produce some useful changes. They may cause us to examine our priorities and our values. They may make us more aware of injustices. The result might be a breakdown of restricted and outdated habits that are not allowing people to find their real areas of growth and achievement.

7 - Rites of Passage and Birth Order

Rites of Passage

The term rites of passage refers to an initiation or a test that a person must pass to gain membership and acceptance in a new role. The basis of such a concept is that roles are very special. One must prove worthy to meet the obligations of the role before he or she is allowed to accept it. It also gives people a stronger sense of belonging to the group if membership is not automatic and one must endure some hardship to reach that goal.

Commonly when people want to join a new club, some form of initiation or welcome is used as well. Rites of passage give us a sense of achievement and a sense of belonging to the group, but they should not become vicious or physically dangerous.

Birth Order

The family unit is very important for socialization that teaches us the roles we need to live successfully in society. Each family is unique for a number of reasons. The number of children in each family and the arrangement of the boy-girl pattern as well as age gaps between children are different. Your place in the family has a great impact on who you are.

Some people believe that each position in the family produces a child with a common pattern of characteristics.

First Born: They are high achievers. They like to do well both academically and athletically. They are responsible and dominant. Parents have very high expectations for these children, which pushes them to do well at all tasks. Therefore, they are conforming and adultoriented.

Middle Children: These children are sometimes labelled the forgotten children because they do not have the special recognition of the first or last born. They are peacekeepers or mediators in the family because they see problems from both the perspective of oldest and youngest. They are outgoing, friendly, and social.

Last Born: They are often cute, charming and special. They can be disorganized and do not like the responsibility of making decisions. They have developed good social skills. They seek more friendships outside the family as older siblings become independent and leave home.

Only Children: They have many characteristics of first-borns, but they do not have patience.

8 - How Important is the Group?

We assume that people value groups whether the family, friendships, clubs, the community, or our society as a whole.

Just how important is group contact for human beings? Suppose an individual commits a serious crime not accepted or tolerated by society. Punishment means removal from society by incarceration. In prison, further misbehaviour follows. What, then, is the ultimate form of punishment? Solitary confinement. Depriving people of contact with other human beings through isolation or shunning is a very serious type of reprimand.

The special control a group exerts over individual behaviour is important. Groups are assumed to have characteristics different from merely the sum of the collective characteristics of their individual members. Group behaviour is unique. In some respects a small group is a miniature replica of the larger society.

Social motives are very important in controlling individual behaviour. Some people will go to great length to gain social approval, including killing someone, or enduring humiliation, pain, or death. Many of our highly valued activities are undertaken, not for their own sake, but as instrumental steps in getting other people to notice, appreciate, help, love, or honour us.

9 - Our Membership in the Family

The process by which people learn to live in harmony with themselves, with others, and with their culture is called socialization. The family is the first and the most important group involved in the process of socialization. Perhaps the most essential aspect of socialization is the development of a conscience—the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. The conscience is the basic tool people require for positive interactions with others in group situations.

The formation of the conscience is part of our moral development. The home is a major contributor. Along with a conscience, the family teaches its members important lessons about having concern for the welfare of others and respecting the rights of others. The family has the first, the most basic, and the greatest influence on the socialization of a child.

10 - Peer Groups and Their Influence

A peer is a person of the same rank or standing and is often of the same age. A peer is an equal. A common concern of parents is the influence of peers on their child’s actions and values. Many parent-child arguments centre around the child’s choice of friends. Parents become particularly anxious if they feel their child is giving up parental standards and adopting peer standards instead.

We usually compare ourselves to others who are similar to us in beliefs and values. These persons are said to be our reference group. For example, your reference group may be your classmates or your athletic teammates. Sometimes we use as reference groups those groups in which we actually have membership. Sometimes we use groups in which we wish we belonged. How much of our behaviour is influenced by the groups depends on how important it is to us to identify with our reference group or maintain membership. We are attracted to people who are reflections of ourselves or who represent what we would like to be.

Young people find security in relationships with others their own age. With the support of the peer group, the individual can move from parental control to greater self-control. The peer group assists the individual in obtaining personal evaluation that is objective without family biases. Within the peer group, the individual is compared to friends of equal ability and not to brothers and sisters. Peers provide the individual with a social setting in which social behaviour can develop. The individual can feel secure in discussing a variety of sensitive topics with peers. They discover friends may have similar feelings, and thus they feel less guilty and awkward about their own feelings.

Identifying with a group allows the individual to share in whatever prestige and power the group possesses. Some persons are so lacking in self-confidence that even the slightest approval or disapproval from others will get them to act in particular ways. The group has a tremendous influence.

11 - Group Classification

Groups can be classified in a number of ways depending on the purpose and perspective of the group.

The Crowd

During mid-adolescence, the crowd becomes the most important avenue of contact. The crowd is a group of people of homogeneous or similar age grouping. Members of both sexes are represented. The crowd has a strong feeling of togetherness and a sense of community spirit among its members. Friendships are flexible among crowd members with the length of friendship varying from person to person. The crowd leader is regarded as a model or reference person for all crowd members. The crowd is a loose collection of individuals who come together to engage in mutually beneficial activities.

The Clique

The clique is a group of people with special, distinguishing features. The clique is usually quite small in numbers. The clique is structured around class lines. The higher the class, the more strict are the controls surrounding admission to the clique.

Inclusive and Exclusive Groups

These categories center around the way the group’s membership is determined. An aim of the inclusive group is to expand activities and include more people. Small inclusive groups tend to change over time as they expand in numbers and grow into larger groups. For example, many church groups are inclusive groups because they seek to include new members.

An aim of the exclusive group is to limit membership to those of special status or those who meet certain prescribed requirements. They are elite groups that often insist on initiation or other ceremonies prior to the granting of full membership. The more difficult the initiation, the more valuable membership in the group is perceived to be. Members of exclusive groups may wear special clothing, jewellery, badges, or pins to separate them from non-members. Some exclusive groups demand that new members be sponsored by an existing member. For example, the country club, the yacht club, or the police force are exclusive groups.

12 - Group Decisions and Influences

Group dynamics refers to interpersonal relationships that develop between individuals within the group. The ways in which small groups form is significant. Social power held by the individual or the group has the potential to precipitate changes. Social influence describes the actual formation and change of attitudes, opinions, and behaviours through group contact and interaction. If group cohesion and group loyalty are fairly well established, the group will have considerable influence on its membership.

How is it possible for a group to influence the behaviour of individual members? Each member’s individual input into the group decision may be small, but it will be present nonetheless. People with an external locus of control feel that sources outside of themselves control their fate. People with an internal locus of control feel that their own inner resources and self-determination are responsible for shaping their destiny. The locus of control hypothesis suggests that the individual most susceptible to persuasion is the one with the external locus of control. The individual with an internal locus of control is less awed by authority figures and may react quite critically to any conspicuous attempts at persuasion.

In what other ways does the group exert an influence? Shared participation means that each member is an active part of the change process rather than a passive recipient. A public commitment to a course of action that is witnessed by others will solidify group influence. For example, at a meeting of the social club, the president says, “Raise your hand if you agree with this decision and are willing to help with the project”. That public commitment reinforces group solidarity.

The collective behaviour of the group can be quite distinctive from that of each participating member. The main notion of the risky-shift hypothesis is that the group will be more brave and daring in its course of action and final decisions than the individuals acting alone. For example, some students are unhappy with the way a social event is being organized in the school. Ten people who are discontent decide to go to the principal’s office as a group and complain. A lone complainer might be more reluctant to do that.

A somewhat different perspective is taken in the cautious-shift hypothesis that maintains that, in decisions involving a diversity of values, the group tends to be more conservative than individual members. A conservative strategy is pursued by the group in decisions involving family responsibility or outright danger. For example, a social club made money through fund-raising, and the members believe it should be invested for greater profits. Some of the members have invested their own money in some highrisk stocks. But the group members persuade each other that the club funds must be invested in ways that are more secure. A group of campers is stranded in the mountains. Some of the campers propose that they negotiate a risky passage through the mountains to reach safety, but the group as a whole decides to stay together and send up flares until they are rescued, which is the safer solution.

13 - Leadership

The group leader initiates and organizes action as well as guides activities. The leader has the greatest influence on the members of the group. The leader must direct the group toward goals that are appropriate and satisfying. The leader must ensure that group goals do not run counter to goals of people outside the group or endanger the welfare of society. The leader has tremendous responsibilities both to those people within the group and those outside of it.

An effective leader has a double workload. The leader directs the energies of the group toward the attainment of certain goals. In addition, the leader displays an awareness of the social emotional needs of the group.

The popular view that some people are born leaders because they inherit certain qualities that make them good leaders is not accepted by experts in the field. People learn to be leaders by studying and consciously practising good leadership techniques. Role playing may be part of a leadership training program. A participant is asked to assume an imaginary leadership role. Skills are discussed and analyzed for the purpose of making improvements. By doing such an exercise, the leader in training acquires the technical skills to take charge effectively of a group. Further, the leader gains important insights into the attitudes and feelings connected with this special position.

Why do certain individuals attain positions of leadership? There are many different possibilities. The leadership-situation hypothesis suggests that someone assumes a position of authority through a combination of factors related to a particular situation. For example, in an emergency an individual who is not overcome by panic might step forward to take charge of the situation. These people may be looked upon as heroes of the crisis. Their term of leadership may be short or long-term depending on the nature of the problem.

The leadership-characteristics hypothesis proposes that leadership positions are earned by those people who have the special charismatic qualities and organizational skills that appeal to the followers. For example, the captain of the hockey or football team is usually someone who has the respect of the other team members.

Leadership Styles

Every leader has a slightly different style of leadership.

A democratic leader works with group members through team work. Democratic leaders give guidance and direction to the group, but they also participate as members of the group. They usually have a positive effect on the group. Because the opinions of the members are respected through the democratic process, the results are happy, efficient, and dedicated workers. Democratic leaders are group-minded. They bring out the best in their group, and they are usually the most highly regarded of all the leaders.

The autocratic leader remains aloof from the group but directs its activities with a firm hand. Autocratic leaders give detailed instructions to the group, but they do not participate to help the group achieve its goals. Groups under the supervision of autocratic leaders can have feelings of hostility and aggression as well as discontent that do not appear on the surface. Group members are dependent and are obedient to the leader more from fear than loyalty. When autocratic leaders are absent from the group for a while, the members may stop working.

The laissez-faire leader is usually very passive. The philosophy of the laissez-faire leader is to let things go as they will. Laissez-faire leaders give information if asked, but they don’t exert much influence on the group. With a weak leader, the group may play more than it works. Group members may work for their own interests rather than the goals of the group.

Distinguishing a Good Leader

Here are some of the qualities of a good leader.

• Leaders exhibit strong intelligence, judgment, social awareness, assessment and evaluation of skills, and sensitivity to needs.
• Leaders have responsibility, self-confidence, determination, and conviction.
• Leaders are sociable, actively involved, flexible in their perspective, and maintain a sense of humour.
• Leaders have some degree of status and popularity in the group.
• Leaders often have a good record of athletic achievement.
• Leaders are the most vocal and articulate members of the group.

Of course, even some of the best leaders do not possess all of these qualities. Often secondary leaders emerge within the group to supplement some of the skills found lacking in the main leader.

14 - Small Group Dynamics – Communication and Unity

A small group is a collective unit of individuals in which face-to-face relationships occur among members. The actual number of members may vary, but the group is small enough that members know each other and act as a cohesive unit. Perhaps an upper limit of twenty members is reasonable for a small group. Some examples of small groups are a hockey team, dance class, yearbook club, evening upgrading class, a volleyball team, or a Sunday school class.

Why do individuals join certain small groups? People seek groups with goals and interests similar to their own—they share the same pleasurable activities. The group satisfies the person’s desire for social interaction and sociability. Another reason for joining the group is for a sense of security and confidence. The group can give its members a sense of selfesteem and personal achievement. The group gives the person recognition of his or her achievement by providing an audience for the work done. The individual may hope to gain social status with memberships in some groups. Some people join organizations to further their business contacts or their career opportunities. Small groups provide a strong network of support for members in a number of ways.

What are some of the disadvantages of belonging to small groups? The small group may not reach decisions very quickly. They may spend too much time in general discussion. The group might focus too much attention on social activity and not enough on work activity. Group members might agree to a bad decision suggested by one of the members rather than risk conflict by disagreeing. Individuals may become too consumed by the activities of the small group and, therefore, adopt a narrow perspective. For example, a student becomes too involved with interests in minor hockey and never develops any other focuses.

Adults can hold memberships in many groups. Churches and labour unions are two formally organized groups that are most popular. The more formal education people have, the more likely they are to join a group and be actively involved. People become more involved with groups as they mature. As people become adults they can participate more effectively in larger groups.

Can you think of some advantages of holding memberships in many different groups? Can you think of some of the problems and conflicts that may be encountered through multiple membership?

Building Unity

One of the major aims of a small group is to build cohesiveness among members. Group cohesiveness may be defined as the mutual, general attraction that group members feel toward each other. Cohesiveness is togetherness combined with a willingness to cooperate. Group cohesiveness is enhanced by common goals and the feeling of members that they share a common fate. Group cohesiveness is not just a vague feeling of liking other members.

The Communication Factor

Once someone has joined a small group, effective communication keeps the person involved. Communication opens the lines of understanding between people. Therefore, it acts as a unifying force. Communication is the interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by means of speech, writing, or signs. Communication is a message transmitted from one living thing to another. Communication goes beyond receiving sounds or symbols. A person receiving communication must be able to understand and distinguish what is being transmitted. Without some form of communication among members, group behaviour is not possible. When communication occurs by the spoken or written word, it is termed verbal communication. When communication occurs through gestures, signs, or body posture, it is termed nonverbal communication. For example, if you shrug your shoulders to a question, you are saying “I don’t know” or “I don’t care”. Putting your head down can show that you are tired.

Suppose there is a conflict between verbal and nonverbal communication. Which message is stronger, or which one tends to be most believable? Usually nonverbal communication has more power. It comes from our unconscious mind or our true inner feelings. For example, when the sales clerk says, “I’d love to help you” but he or she has a frown and stands facing you with arms crossed, you have the feeling that the verbal message is somewhat insincere.

15 - Negative Side of Groups

The group can create unhappiness for the individual in the form of loneliness, which means that people are outside the border of the group. People who are alone are not necessarily lonely. Loneliness is defined as the lack of group acceptance and support by someone who misses that interaction. Our society is busy, sophisticated, and full of opportunities, but it produces lonely people. One reason is that people in our society are very mobile, which cuts them off from meaningful and lasting relationships within groups. Another reason is that our choice of leisure activities tends to promote solitariness. Children play alone more than with each other. Several years ago, children spent more time inventing games, negotiating rules, and being part of teams during their play activities. Currently, children are involved in more solitary activities such as watching TV and playing arcade and computer games. All of those examples tend not to invite group interaction and may actually damage social skills if they become the focus of a person’s life for an extended period of time. Therefore, loneliness is often self-inflicted. People must set goals to be active within groups.

The individual is not always to blame when group relationships deteriorate. A person can experience rejection from personal relationships or small groups. Rejection is not entirely negative; it gives us opportunity to examine the situation we are in and learn valuable lessons from it. Rejection may cause people to be more determined to accept challenges to merit group membership. Rejection teaches people that forming and reforming new relationships is one of the facts of life.

Another very negative emotion is hatred. It is usually more intense between large groups within the society. It may be related to one of the phobias such as xenophobia, fear of strangers or outsiders. Fear, aggressiveness, and threats against one’s future and one’s safety bring out feelings of xenophobia.

A special kind of group phenomenon occurring during a lengthy crisis is termed the Stockholm Syndrome. People who become hostages undergo very intense emotions. If the hostage siege lasts for some time, the captives may tend to take sides with their captors and identify with them. The Stockholm Syndrome was first identified when bank employees and customers were trapped in a bank by a gunman over a long period of time. When the hostages were finally freed, the police were quite amazed that these people feared for the safety of the robber and believed the gunman was the oppressed party.

16 - Being Outside the Group – Dealing with Bullies, Unemployment

Dealing With Bullies

Bullies are aggressive people who derive satisfaction from overpowering and controlling others either physically or psychologically. They do not pick fair fights; their victims are weaker than they are. They are impulsive and dominant. Bullies are usually boys, but girls bully as well. Usually bullies come from homes where parents do not give them enough attention. The defenceless victims remind the bullies of their own vulnerability in an abusive home, which makes them strike out at their weaker victims with vengeance. Bullies tend to over-react to aggression in their peers. Often they attack peers without provocation. The typical victim is often quiet, sensitive, and anxious. Victims may give the impression that they are insecure and are not worthy; bullies target children they believe will not retaliate.

If you are singled out by a bully, do not suffer in silence. If you do, you could become a permanent victim of this individual. Find a network of friends or colleagues to give you support because bullies usually attack lone victims. If you are a school student, talk to a teacher or a counsellor about it.

Although bullying is a very negative behaviour, the power of group intervention can certainly be helpful in eliminating it or keeping it under control.

Unemployment

When people leave school as young adults, receive job training, and secure employment, their identities become closely intertwined with the kind of work they do. When people introduce themselves to strangers, they give their names and then their occupations. Our jobs give us many essential things:

• monetary rewards that we use for survival
• a group of colleagues who become part of our work team
• a sense of dignity, purpose, and self-worth because we are able to do something meaningful to justify our existence

Being unemployed destroys the network of support people need to satisfy all of those important needs. Being outside the employment group makes people feel helpless and isolated.

If you lose your job, a group of friends, associates, and former business contacts can help by providing some valuable leads in the job market.

Nowadays, more unemployed people are becoming self-employed by setting up their own companies or by becoming consultants to three or four different companies. These people have taken new approaches to employment by working independently out of their homes. How will the new network of independent workers have an impact on the sense of community? Will overall community ties be stronger or weaker? How will it affect other areas of community spirit?

17 - Positive Side of Groups

At one time, the family unit was one’s basic support group. For many people, this is no longer true. Family ties are not as strong as they once were. Some families are separated by long distances due to employment commitments and the general mobility of the population.

Strong personal friendships have replaced the family unit; they substitute for weakened family relationships. Close friends provide support and an outlet for expressing our inner thoughts. For a friendship to be strong, we must learn to nurture it and share both time and feelings.

Friendships between women tend to be stronger because women are more outwardly in touch with feelings and tend to emphasize social bonds. However, men are starting to be more aware of the value of friendships; even strong friendships with other men are given attention. In families, siblings may establish strong ties with each other. When this occurs, the strongest connections are sister-sister friendships, then sister-brother connections, and finally brother-brother ties because brothers tend to be more competitive.

18 - Winning with People

People can benefit directly by having some insight into human behaviour and how to deal with people who have different perspectives on life. That will make our relationships more productive. In any kind of business or group situation, “people problems” are most prevalent. We can reduce tension and increase cooperation and harmony by developing an understanding of how other people feel comfortable and how they approach daily tasks.

Suppose all types of people in the world fit into a circle. Then, we divide the circle into four equal parts; each sector contains people with similar perspectives and personality characteristics. One line divides people who like to be active in doing things versus people who like to stand on the sidelines and watch. The second line divides people who feel most comfortable relating to other people versus people who prefer working with tasks.

Each of the sections then forms a quadrant. The people in each quadrant are a blend of the two intersecting lines that form their boundaries. Starting with the quadrant on the upper right are people who emphasize harmony—they are passive and like relating to people (counsellors, therapists). In the lower right, we have people who are thinkers and analysts— they are passive and enjoy tasks (scientists, computer programmers). In the lower left are people who like managing for the sake of being productive and efficient—they operate aggressively and prefer tasks to people (supervisors, production managers). In the upper left are people who are socializers and the “life of the party”—they are outgoing and like relating to people (sales people, television hosts).

Here is what the description looks like in diagram form.

Where are you in the diagram? What about your family members, friends, colleagues, and the people in some of your small groups? People tend to feel most comfortable with people from the same group who have the same perspective on life. People will also feel relatively comfortable with people in the adjoining quadrants. However, if you think about where you fit and where some of your strongest adversaries fit, you will realize that most often you are at odds with the people from the opposite side of the quadrant. For example, people in #2 and #4 tend to have the most conflicts. People from #1 and #3 are also opposites.

Is it most productive to have a mixture of people in a small group or to have like-minded individuals working together? You might think about these questions as you consider the characteristics of each group in more detail.

The People Puzzle offers some interesting insights into the way people perceive life and their most comfortable style of approach for work, social, leisure, and family situations. The boundary lines are not absolute, which means you are not exclusively one type of person. If you think about it carefully, one of the four quadrants is your most comfortable style for a majority of the time. When you feel a distinct uneasiness about someone you know, check to see if he or she is in the opposite quadrant. Look at the qualities of your opposite. Try to be objective and unbiased. What are their strengths? What qualities do you admire? Which of their qualities would be especially helpful to you if the two of you had to work together as a team?

Lesson Review

This lesson provided some interesting perspectives on the roles we perform. Groups have many special characteristics that influence the attitudes and behaviours of people who work together.