Lesson 2: Emotions and Criminal Behaviour

Lesson Objectives

            The student will learn about...

• Aggression: Studying it from Many Angles
• How do we Acquire Aggressive Behaviour?
• Child Abuse as a Form of Aggression
• Dealing with Difficult People
• Frustration and Stress
• Emotions and Illness
• How Children Deal with Death
• Suicide
• Defense Mechanisms
• Nurturing our Positive Emotions
• Pets and Emotions
• Touch can Calm Emotions
• Criminal Statistics
• The Psychology of Victimization
• Violence in the Home
• Effect of Violence in the Media
• Youth Crime and the Young Offenders’ Act
• Kleptomania and Pyromania
• The Psychopath
• Sexual Assault
• Cults
• Criminal Profiles

Introduction

This lesson was created using material from General Psychology 20, Student Module Booklet, Alberta Distance Learning Centre.

Overview

Emotions make the living, breathing organism we call “human beings” into the loving, compassionate, fiery creatures that we are. Emotions energize our behaviour and our relationships with others. Emotions can also take negative turns that can make people angry, jealous, violent, and generally put them under tremendous stress. This lesson will study the sweeping range of emotions, how we can control their dark side, and how we can make the most of their positive qualities.

People live, work, play, and help each other in groups. They want not only to further their own goals, but they want to help their fellow human beings. Fortunately, this is true most of the time. Cooperation means progress for one and all. Occasionally, serious problems cloud our relationships. Sometimes people set out to harm others intentionally or to damage and destroy their property.

What causes criminal behaviour? Does it just happen to the “lower elements” of our society? Why might one member of a family be criminally deviant and the others be law-abiding citizens? Is the crime rate increasing? Are criminals becoming more vicious in their crimes? Can criminal intent be predicted? These questions are part of our research of criminal behaviour.

1 - Aggression: Studying it from Many Angles

Aggression is often misunderstood, feared, and generally viewed as distasteful. Aggression is any action that directly or indirectly inflicts harm on others. The word aggression is used to describe behaviour that ranges from asserting one’s personal interests to violent, physical action. Two things most often associated with aggression are anger and a surge of power. Aggressive people communicate in loud, commanding ways. They may put people down or use sarcasm.

Passive behaviour is the opposite of aggressive behaviour. It involves avoiding confrontations and being led or controlled by someone else. Although many believe that passive behaviour is very civilized, such behaviour can be unhealthy. Failure to respond to any conflict or difficult situation can result in unsatisfactory lifestyle choices. For example, failure to state preferences of how you wish to spend leisure time may mean that you always do what your friends want to do. In this case, you may be disappointed at your friends’ choices, yet never give yourself a chance to develop your own preferences. Passiveness may also be called submissiveness. Passive people often withdraw completely from social interaction or remain meekly in the background.

How does assertiveness compare to aggressiveness? Assertiveness refers to behaviour such as standing up for one’s rights and interests and actively coping with disagreeable situations. Assertive people approach situations with a win-win goal in mind. They stick up for their rights by speaking up boldly and insistently, but at the same time they show respect toward others. Assertive people have many positive skills that include:

• personal independence and high levels of self-confidence
• leadership skills and a sense of personal power when approaching situations
• strong social skills, listening to others while initiating and handling conversations with ease and finesse

Anger is an intense emotion, but it is not always destructive. It can lead to greater awareness and understanding if the individuals concerned can de-escalate the conflict and talk over possible solutions. Assertive people feel anger, but they deal with it by trying to find constructive ways to resolve the problem.

Here are some situations in which assertiveness is appropriate:

• when restaurant services or purchases are not satisfactory
• when someone disturbs you by talking loudly at a movie, play, or concert
• telling someone good news about yourself (not in a boastful way)
• resisting sales pressure
• refusing an unreasonable request
• meeting the challenge of conversing with someone who does not share your point of view
• requesting a return of borrowed items

Are aggression and violence related? Violent behaviour is unjust or unwarranted exertion of force or power; injurious actions leading to physical damage or harm. Violence is the most extreme form of aggression in which threats, force, and hostile actions are characteristic. In the interests of survival, some forms of aggression are acceptable, but violence is considered destructive and harmful. For example, if a hockey player body checks another player in a clean, sportsman-like way, he is being aggressive. If a hockey player uses his stick to injure another player deliberately, he is acting in a violent manner.

When people continually suppress their hostility and do not come to terms with it, violent kinds of aggression may erupt. Police records confirm that some of the most vicious crimes have been committed by individuals who are perceived to be very gentle, quiet, and conservative. Much hostility can be traced to poor communication skills.

More will be said about violence and crime later in this lesson.

2 - How do we Acquire Aggressive Behaviour?

Aggression is inborn or human beings are born with aggressive tendencies.

The theory that aggression is instinctive states that aggression is necessary for the survival of the individual and the species. This was especially true for our early ancestors because their world was full of daily, life-threatening turmoil. The human body was equipped to survive such dangers. For example, the male hormone testosterone or androgen appears to increase the reaction to respond aggressively.

According to the inborn theory of aggression, although our lives are more secure nowadays, we are still born with the instinct for aggression. Robust youngsters are assertive in gaining attention to fulfill their needs. Normal, everyday activities such as play, curiosity, and exploration of the world involve some elements of aggression from the average infant. A baby who is too passive may be ill in some way.

Aggression is learned.

The other perspective on aggression is that the individual is not aggressive until external factors set up a frustrating situation that leads to aggression. According to this theory, aggression occurs when people experience conflict and frustration rather than through inherited characteristics.

Because children are emotionally close to their parents, aggressive behaviour from parents sets a negative example for children. Aggression appears to be intensified by power-oriented child-rearing techniques such as frequent and overly strict physical punishments and threats. The proper handling of rewards and punishments by parents is important so the dark side of aggression does not become established.

Anonymity is the act of hiding one’s identity and  becoming nameless. When people are allowed to be anonymous, aggression has a tendency to increase. Personal anonymity removes the fear of other people’s disapproval and censure. Accountability no longer holds the conscience in check, so people feel more free to behave aggressively. For example, the Klu Klux Klan practise their aggressive deeds in disguise. Many people seem to be less inhibited at costume parties where their identity is hidden.

Whether aggression can be accepted as an innate drive or whether aggression is merely a response to frustration arising from adverse external conditions has still not been resolved.

3 - Child Abuse as a Form of Aggression

Child abuse is a highly condemned form of aggression that is often successfully hidden from public criticism by the offenders. Some of the injuries inflicted on helpless youngsters by parents and family members are unbelievable and horrifying.

Sometimes parents have extremely high expectations for their children at inappropriately early ages. They use harsh measures to enforce demands on their children, which can lead to child abuse. Abusing parents were often abused children themselves. Because these individuals grew up seeing abusive techniques used as a form of discipline, they may believe it is a natural way to raise their children. Another reason parents abuse their kids is a lack of parenting skills. They really do not know how to raise a child. Parenting involves tremendous responsibility and some stress. When frustrations build in the home, the parents may lash out with uncontrolled anger.

In 75% of the cases of child abuse, parents are responsible. Babysitters, step-parents and other relatives are found at fault to a lesser degree. Sometimes for their own safety and best interests, the children must be removed from the homes. Usually this action is taken only if the child is in serious physical danger. Although separating the child from the abusive family member may be important, the child may be unhappy with such a solution. From the child’s point of view, he or she is being punished in a sense by being removed from the familiarity of the home environment. Another solution to correct abusive parenting is counselling for the whole family. Parents learn anger management and how to teach their children responsibility and problem solving in a nonviolent way.

Besides mental and physical abuse, children can be sexually abused by people they love and trust. Adults are in a position of power and authority, which makes it relatively easy to sexually abuse a child. The pain of betrayal can scar the child for life and may interfere with the development of intimate relationships as adults. Sexually-abused children have intense feelings of shame and guilt although they are innocent victims. They feel isolated and develop low self-esteem. Some abused children are too confused or afraid to report what is happening to them, and thus, some of them endure many years of mistreatment. As adults, they may become abusers themselves. Physically, they may develop chronic pain of one kind or another. Some may have eating disorders. Emotionally, they may turn to alcohol, promiscuity, and even prostitution in some cases. Feelings of depression or suicidal thoughts are other symptoms.

Adults who have a reasonable suspicion that a child is being physically or sexually abused are obligated to report it to the authorities.

If you suspect a child is being abused, call 310‑0000 to get the telephone number of your local office or call the Child Abuse Hotline at 1‑800‑387‑KIDS (5437) to speak with a caseworker.

4 - Dealing with Difficult People

There are many difficult people in the world, and from time to time everyone will encounter them. Difficult people may complain constantly or may try to be manipulative to get their way. A difficult person is simply someone who causes problems for others. Although the definition is simple, the solutions take effort before the situation is resolved.

Here are some constructive questions to ask when faced with conflicts:

• How do you define the problem?
• How does the other person define the problem?
• How does your behaviour contribute to the problem?
• How does the other person’s behaviour contribute to the problem?
• What events tend to set the conflict in motion?
• What are areas of agreement between the two of you?
• What are some of your strengths that could be used to resolve the conflict?
• What are some goals you have in common with the other person?
• How will you celebrate your success when the conflict is resolved?

Dealing with difficult people will generate feelings of anger and aggression. Here are some effective ways of dealing with these emotionally powerful forces.

Admit anger — In general, most people tend to block the true picture of anger, with the result that it is driven underground where it becomes a source of future hostility. They believe that anger is a sign of immaturity and they feel guilty.

Pinpoint the source of anger — In this step you become more focused on the specific problem. The most effective way to handle annoying situations is to begin by controlling your own behaviour. In a situation with a lot of anger and conflict, if we lose control of our emotions or internalize the hurt feelings and withdraw, we cannot reach a healthy solution. Ask yourself several thoughtful questions to uncover the real source of anger.

Approach anger head-on — Good communication skills are essential to resolving conflicts that result from anger. Try to own your anger rather than resorting to blame. Instead of saying, “You made me angry” (which means someone else can control your feelings), say, “I feel angry when you...” or “I chose to feel angry because...”. We let other people control us by giving us negative feelings. Absence of blame helps you and others resolve the conflict. We must not become engulfed in emotions because that weakens our ability to do some clear-headed thinking.

Carefully examine your reaction to anger — Did the anger arise from fear, insecurity, rejection, resentment, or a feeling of injustice? The key step when dealing with difficult people is to organize your thoughts and concentrate on solving the problem instead of rebutting negative comments that simply escalate the anger. You might paraphrase the problem they have put before you. That shows you are listening to them and trying to gain an understanding of their concerns. You may also take notes and ask questions for clarification. By using those methods, you direct your energies to solving the problem instead of exchanging insults.

5 - Frustration and Stress

Frustration is the result of thwarting or blocking behaviour that will help us to reach our goals. As the definition suggests, people want to follow a certain course of action but their efforts are defeated. What are some frustrating situations we may encounter? For example, you cannot find an important book that is overdue at the library and spend all Saturday afternoon searching for it. You may have wanted to enter a particular occupation but found you did not have the aptitude or financial resources to pursue that career. Some frustrating situations are momentary and insignificant. Others may be long term and much more devastating.

Frustration tolerance is the ability of an individual to handle frustration without becoming maladjusted or too upset. People exhibit a variety of behaviours when they meet frustrating events. They may withdraw if they feel they cannot cope with the conditions. They may become angry. Well adjusted people accept some measure of frustration as a normal event that occurs in the real world from time to time.

approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance

There are three kinds of conflicting situations: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance.

Approach-approach is a positive win/win situation. When you are offered two attractive choices, you are enticed by both possibilities. Both alternatives are equally desirable in the approach-approach conflict. You may ask, “Why would it be considered a conflict if everything is positive?” We consider each choice in turn and may waver from one to the other until we finally decide. Sometimes we put our decision on hold until we have a chance to think about it. Gradually, one alternative will gain a slight edge over the other, and we decide in its favour. Later, we may reverse our decision. Approach-approach conflicts sound easy to solve, but we are often fearful that we may miss some important factors and take second best. For example, your friend asks you to go to an exciting party where you know you will have a great time. The same night is a concert 100 km away; the entertainers will be superb. Which one do you choose?

The approach gradient describes the increase in the strength of the pull toward an attractive goal the closer the individual gets to the goal. Once you have decided on a goal, all your attention and energy is directed toward reaching that goal.

Avoidance-avoidance is not a good situation to be facing. You are offered two unattractive choices, and you are asked to choose one. Your strategy is to assess both possibilities carefully and take the lesser of two evils. For example, in science class you have a special project that is difficult, complicated, and time-consuming. You wish to avoid it. The other alternative is that the teacher will call your name in class if the assignment is not done, which is embarrassing. In addition, you risk the chance of getting a low grade or failing the course. Therefore, you are experiencing an avoidance-avoidance conflict.

The avoidance gradient is used to describe the increase in the strength of the tendency of an individual to avoid an undesirable goal the closer one gets to the goal. For example, if you have a great fear of reptiles, when you visit the zoo and approach the reptile enclosure, the closer you get, the more difficult you will find controlling the urge to make a fast exit.

The third type of conflicting situation is approach-avoidance. This type of situation has both positive and negative values. Few choices in our lives are either all good or all bad. Many of our choices will have a mixture of both. We are pulled in opposite directions as we focus on the good points and then the bad points. For example, you have just baked a tasty casserole. When you pull it out of the oven, you are tempted to taste it (approach). But you also remember what it feels like to burn your mouth on hot food, so you set it aside to cool (avoidance). Approach-avoidance conflicts are usually much more complex than that, especially when they occur in our personal relationships.

The Power of Stress

Similar to frustration and conflict, stress is an inevitable part of our lives. Stress is effort, strain, intense exertion, and pressure from adverse conditions that make demands of an individual. Stressor stimuli describes the factors creating stress. Stress reaction is the defense used to respond to or conquer stress. For example, getting a severe cold is a stressor stimuli. The stress reaction is taking suitable medication, drinking soups and juices, and getting extra rest.

Stress comes in two basic types, healthy and unhealthy. Yes, stress can be healthy! Normal stress is beneficial because it makes people alert, responsive, and often more efficient. Some of our emotions centering around stress and tension can be very exciting. Certain sports activities contribute to healthy stress. Stress becomes dangerous to our health when our bodies get geared up for stress, the stressful situation passes, and we cannot turn off the stress button. Stress becomes continuous. The body’s defenses may deteriorate when stress becomes permanent.

Two reactions to stress are fear and anxiety. Anxiety is a general feeling of uneasiness arising from the expectation of a threatening situation from an unknown source. For example, Martha was starting a new job. Everything seemed fine, but she still felt very nervous and uneasy although she could not pinpoint the reason. Fear usually originates with a specific threat such as financial difficulties, possibility of losing one’s job, or actual physical danger.

Stress List

Stress appears in many forms. As Dr. Selye has stated, no stress means death. A wise approach to stress is to be sure pressures do not bombard us from all directions at once. That is similar to having ten large airplanes attempting to land at the airport all at the same time.

6 - Emotions and Illness

Stress can hinder the healthy functioning of the gastrointestinal tract and the autonomic nervous system. Loss of appetite, migraine headaches, allergies, ulcers, high blood pressure, muscle tensions, and heart disease are a few of the many body responses to stress. Stress may precipitate psychosomatic illness. These illnesses arise from the mind or emotions, but the body symptoms that occur are quite real.

The vulnerability hypothesis may have some truth. As an organism becomes more biologically vulnerable, stress gains control. Studies have noted connections between stress and the overall health of the individual with ordinary infectious diseases such as cold, strep throat, and the flu. How much stress the person has and whether or not the individual has a mild or severe case of these illnesses seems to correlate.

Scientists are accumulating evidence that strongly suggests a biochemical link between one’s emotional state, the immune function, and the progression of one of our most serious illnesses— cancer. Scientists know that the central nervous system has hook-ups to the endocrine or hormonal system and the immune system. They also know biological pathways link the central nervous system to the tumours.

7 - How Children Deal with Death

Issues of death are best dealt with before the child actually experiences death first-hand. Three or four years of age could be a good time to start. If young children are prepared for small deaths such as a bird or animal, they will be prepared for the more significant deaths they will face later such as the death of grandparents, extended relatives, family members, or pets. The emotional pain a young child experiences connected with death involves shock, anger, worry, perhaps guilt, and sometimes feelings of abandonment.

Children may not necessarily show grief through crying. Behaviours such as aggression, withdrawal, moodiness, eating disruptions, and sleeping disorders are common signals that the child is grieving. Young children are usually not capable of verbally expressing their grief. Children may be comfortable expressing grief through artwork, music, or play activities such as role playing a funeral. Older children will find some therapy by being involved in commemorative activities of some kind.

These tips may be useful for adults when helping children deal with death.

• Be straightforward and do not use euphemisms such as “she has gone to sleep”. Such phrases connected to death experiences may cause the child to have nightmares about falling asleep. Death can be explained by saying that when people are dead their bodies do not work anymore. When people die, they are gone from our lives and do not return.
• Talk openly about the situation. Emphasize that death is a normal part of our lives. Paraphrase some of their statements about their grief to show you understand.
• Mention that the dead go to a place that is safe and good. But stress that they should not take steps to join the dead.
• Get the child to think about happy times with the deceased. Talk about the person or pet who died. Listen to the child’s expressions of grief. Reassure children that it is OK to feel as they do.
• Talk to the child about what can be done to help him or her through the process of mourning. Eventually, new directions are established and invest in new relationships.

8 - Suicide

Canada has the third highest teen suicide rate in the world. Within Canada, Nunavut has the highest rate of teenage suicide. In 2017, Alberta’s suicide rate of 14.9 deaths per 100,000 people among the highest in Canada. Most suicide deaths involve teenage or young adult males.

  Suicide statistics in Alberta.

Women attempt suicide nine times more frequently than men. However, men use guns more often as a means of committing suicide, so their suicide rate is higher. When women attempt suicide, they often use drug overdoses, so if they are rushed to hospital in time, they often can be saved. Women have more tendency to reach out to others and give warning signals of contemplating suicide. Most people who attempt suicide have given some type of warning sign, but that can be missed if one does not know what to look for.

Suicide is traceable to a wide range of factors such as poverty, isolation, divorce, family alcoholism, prejudice, intense negative pressure from peers, and academic pressures. All these situations can plunge people into serious depression. Unemployment can trigger thoughts of suicide because it can destroy an individual’s self-esteem.

People who harbour thoughts of suicide need professional counselling.  Here is the information for Calgary...

Distress Centre Calgary

• Serving Calgary and surrounding areas
• Suite 300, 1010-8 Avenue SW, Calgary, AB T2P 1J2
• Crisis 24 hours
• Main Crisis Line:(403) 266-4357
• ConnecTeen: (403) 264-TEEN
• on line chat support:   www.calgaryconnecteen.com
  
• Business: (403) 266-1601
• Fax: (403) 262-2512
• email: info@distresscentre.com
• website: http://www.distresscentre.com

We must remember that suicide is an individual choice. Never blame anyone when it happens. Family and friends tend to feel guilty when suicide occurs. Be honest with your feelings so you do not set up any barricades that prevent you from working through your feelings of bereavement.

Feelings that survivors display when suicide deaths occur are different than for other causes of death. First, people feel numb as a means of self-protection from the death. Second, their emotions come forward in various ways as they acknowledge their grief. Finally, they begin to feel more comfortable with their feelings and begin to take small steps to get on with their lives.

Everyone expresses grief in personal ways. Bereavement takes time.

9 - Defense Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud was the first psychologist to categorize and describe defense mechanisms. A defense mechanisms are behaviours that an individual uses in response to frustration or conflict. They are protective measures that shelter the individual’s self esteem when threatened. Defense mechanisms keep people from getting overly anxious. They go into action automatically before a person becomes aware of building anxiety, and they keep the person from becoming too upset.

Defense mechanisms are unconscious responses. We are usually not aware of using them and do not deliberately choose to use them for our protection.

Defense mechanisms alleviate anxiety by using methods that deny, falsify, or distort reality. They are indirect and sometimes self-defeating ways of coping with problems.

Defense mechanisms can be grouped in these categories:

• repression, suppression, reaction formation
• compensation, overcompensation, sublimation
• projection, introjection, identification
• procrastination
• displaced aggression
• rationalization
• regression

Negative Aspects of Defense Mechanisms

All defense mechanisms are self-deceptive and are employed when they feel threatened. When defense mechanisms become the dominant mode of problem solving, an individual wastes great time and energy maintaining the defense mechanisms. The person directs little effort into constructive work that could be useful in solving the problem. In extreme cases, excessive use of defense mechanisms may lead to personality maladjustment.

Positive Aspects of Defense Mechanisms

When used in moderation, defense mechanisms can help people adjust to difficult situations. They may provide temporary protection from problems that might initially be overwhelming. Defense mechanisms allow the person to develop adequate problem-solving techniques without intense pressures. For example, the immediate reaction of anyone being told of the death of a loved one is denial. The person simply refuses to accept the situation as true. Such statements as “No! It’s not possible!” are often used. Later, the person will normally accept the fact over a period of time that gives the individual a chance to recover.

Defense mechanisms are an important rescue system in a variety of crises.

10 - Nurturing our Positive Emotions

What can we do to conquer negative emotions? How can we develop the strength to enable us to meet all challenges in our lives? People need a balance of physical, emotional, and mental support.

Developing Physical Strengths

An apple a day...

Cultivate and maintain good health habits. Mind and body work as one. Getting enough rest and sleep, balanced meals, and adequate exercise are essential elements. Keep your weight at a healthy level. Eat breakfast. Avoid alcohol and cigarettes. Have regular medical check ups. Avoid excessive sugar or fats.

Exercise is very important. Regular, moderate physical exercise is one of the best ways to increase self-esteem, boost a person’s sense of power, and stimulate creativity. It can make people more emotionally resilient. Positive health habits can increase life expectancy by up to fifteen years.

Developing Emotional Strengths

A friend in need...

Find a person you can confide in, and talk out your troubles. The term catharsis means relieving emotional tensions by verbalizing one’s feelings. By sharing problems with others, we might be comforted in knowing that many others have had the same problems and managed to conquer them. We may be too emotionally involved in a situation to think about it clearly, but friends can give us an objective perspective. Circles of support add to well being.

Reach out. In social relationships, learn to be considerate and develop the quality of caring. Be temperate in your criticism of others. Sincerity is another valuable asset. Develop that intensity of understanding and relating to other people, namely empathy. Search for some worthwhile causes in life and pursue them.

Developing Mental Strengths

When the kettle boils...

Use constructive work or active leisure interests to release or reduce negative emotions such as anger, hostility, and tension. We must admit to aggression and other related feelings before these emotions can be channelled into positive projects.

Maintain a positive outlook. Look at the humourous side of a situation. When you are confronted by too many demands, slow down, and take one problem at a time. This allows you a better chance to remain calm and in control of anxiety. Realize that life is full of changes and be ready to adapt to the changes you face. Be reasonable in setting levels for achievement neither too high (leading to frustration) or too low (leading to lack of interest).

Job satisfaction is extremely important for good mental and physical health. Some studies suggest a close relationship between job enjoyment and the prediction of longevity. Work and leisure should complement each other.

Relax, relax

Meditation is a remedy for stress practised by many people. Meditation is a relaxation technique that allows the person to get in touch with his or her true inner nature. Relaxation makes a person healthier, but a spiritual aspect helps the soul as well as the body. Slow breathing has a very calming effect. Another relaxation technique is to imagine something that is serene and peaceful. Meditation has been shown to reduce blood pressure and ease emotional tension.

Sometimes the best way to tackle problems is to get away from them for a while enabling a fresh start. Keep smiling!

11 - Emotional Support From Pets

Companion animals contribute much to the physical, mental, and emotional health of their human friends. Long-time animal owners know this. Now it has been documented in many research studies as well. In our fast-paced, urban society, people tend to be more isolated from extended family members than ever before. Pets fill the void of isolation people experience. Pets offer unconditional love. For people with mental health problems or delinquency problems, pets provide opportunity to take responsibility to care for another living creature.

Pets have a very calming influence on their human partners, a positive effect on people’s moods. Human-animal bonding reduces stress and anxiety, diffuses tensions, improves cardiovascular health, heightens one’s sense of self-esteem, and increases one’s sense of security.

Pet therapy has been used extensively in several different institutions. Dogs and cats visit various care facilities such as hospital rooms of the terminally ill, extended care institutions for the elderly, institutions for the mentally ill, and even a variety of places of incarceration.

Pets appear to love one and all without discrimination. They also display trust in people, which is very therapeutic. Pets give people who are ill and dependent a sense of dignity. Pets generate a feeling of being needed, which gives patients the opportunity to practise their nurturing skills. The overall health of some of the fragile elderly has improved as they anticipate regular visits from four-legged friends. Some people who shrink from communicating with human beings will break that barrier and talk to their pet friends. In some cases, pets have proven to be more effective in helping the ill than either drug treatment or counselling.

12 - Touch can Calm Emotions

In our society, people are out of touch with one of their most important senses–touch. Touch has become forbidden because we were not touched a great deal by our parents when we were children. Now, we have put up barriers against touch. Usually touch has been related to sex in some way and that is why people are reluctant to reach out to others with touch.

We can communicate many things through touch that cannot be conveyed by the spoken word. Touch is our first sense as newborns. Touch expresses many things— relaxation, healing, friendship, and love. When therapeutic touch is used to heal others, energy is transferred from the hands of the practitioner to the patient by moving the hands close to the skin.

When people refrain from touch on a long-term basis, they are isolating themselves from an important avenue of contact with others. We become lonely and addicted to material things instead of what we can do for others. Physical isolation from others can reduce our capacity for growth. If young animals are deprived of touch from their parents, especially their mothers, they tend to become more violent and aggressive.

Many people who yearn for touch hire professional massage therapists to provide that physical contact. Massage reduces two stress hormones. For some people, massage provides relaxation; others feel alive and energized after massage. Massage therapy helps many ailments from migraines to muscle tension, depression, anxiety, and high blood pressure. Some massage therapists say some of their most rewarding contact is with lonely, elderly widows who crave a caring touch from someone.

Touch has played a key role in the miracle recovery of some hospital patients who were seriously ill and sometimes even unconscious. The power of touch linked them to their loved ones. Touch played a major role in returning them to health.

13 - Criminal Statistics

To many people, our world is becoming more and more violent and burdened with crime. News on television and radio carry detailed stories of the latest victims and their aggressors. The newspapers are full of ongoing incidents of crime. Some conclude that crime is increasing in epidemic proportions. But is that perception accurate?

Are Crime Rates Increasing?

Of course, a great deal of crime is not reported to the police for various reasons. In 1993, household break and enters were the crimes most likely reported to the police and sexual assaults were the least likely reported crimes. The only crime that showed a substantial increase in reporting to police was robbery. Sometimes crimes are not reported because they are perceived to be too minor; victims feel the police could do nothing about it anyway. In some cases, there may be a fear of revenge, or deep feelings of shame. Half of the people in Canada reported that they keep their doors locked at all times, even when they are at home. About two-thirds of Canadians say they still feel safe walking in their own neighbourhoods at night, but each year people are reporting more concerns about their safety.

With these statistics in mind, why do people have the perception that crime rates are increasing dramatically? An increase in crime statistics makes the news because the media finds such information gains attention from the public. Crime rates that tend to remain stable or even decrease slightly are considered a bit boring. People tend to focus on information that is dramatic, vivid, intense, and somewhat frightening.

People are most concerned with situations where they will become victims of violent crimes. Statistics such as those you examined for the city of Edmonton indicate that Canadians are not at a higher risk of this happening today than they were five years earlier.

14 - The Psychology of Victimization

We all face the possibility of becoming victims of some type of crime. A great deal of time is devoted to studying criminals. What is the personal, emotional impact of becoming a victim?

People who have been victims of crime (or in the case of murder, the surviving relatives) commonly make victim impact statements to the court during the trial of the offender. A victim impact statement is simply a paragraph or two about how the victims have been personally affected by the crime. It is saying, “Yesterday, I was a normal member of society. Because of the crime, my life has changed in the following way....” It is important for victims to be heard and to know that they have had the opportunity to “have their say” in public. They are the innocent victims, and in many cases their lives have been irrevocably altered by crime. Simply making a statement cannot undo the terrible damage that has been done to these victims. However, in the process of voicing their hurt, victims experience healing. Their faith in the process of justice is restored somewhat.

The feelings experienced by the victim of a crime cover a broad range of reactions depending on the serious nature of the crime and whether the perpetrator of the criminal act was known to the victim was a stranger. Victim trauma syndrome is the intense reaction resulting from the abuse a person suffers during a crime. Many people report they feel “violated” in some way. They feel singled out, punished, isolated, unclean, and damaged either physically or psychologically. The question that keeps coming to their minds is, “Why me?” An overwhelming sense of fear and insecurity may develop and often lead to nightmares. A person may experience fatigue, disturbances in sleep patterns, tension headaches, intense guilt, and self-blame. Accompanying those ailments are an overpowering fear of physical violence and death. When the justice system gives victims opportunity to speak in court, victims regain a little sense of power and control in their lives that was taken away when the crime was committed.

15 - Violence in the Home

The home is our basic source of security enabling us to grow and take a position as a productive member of society. When violence occurs in the home, growth and development are no longer the focus; the family member or members are simply interested in survival. Violence is physically and psychologically damaging.

When violence occurs in the home, in many cases the father or father figure is the perpetrator. However, sometimes the wife and mother is the abuser. She may abuse both her children and her husband. Men who are abused by their wives are usually silent about the violence aimed at them. They feel ashamed that they are being terrorized by a woman because their masculine image is destroyed.

The husband dominating his wife with physical or psychological violence is more common. Sometimes only the wife is abused in the initial stages, but the children may become subject to abuse as well. Some wives tolerate years of abuse, but when the children also become victims, they realize they must take action.

Money from government and private donations is used to provide women’s shelters where women and their children can find a safe haven if they choose to run away from an abusive husband and father. These men see women as their property to do with as they wish instead of their equal marriage partners. The men feel a deep urge to control their wives, and they use violence to accomplish this goal. It may happen more often when women become independent and enter the work force. Some men may feel frustrated for one reason or another and have not learned anger management. A high portion of battering men come from homes where their fathers beat their mothers.

Women have reported a wide range of injuries from their partners. Some include beating, choking, slapping, being thrown around, assault with a weapon, and degrading sexual indignities. They have had broken bones, bruises to all parts of their bodies, cuts, black eyes, and other injuries to the face. Often the control and the violence begins with minor things such as a slap or a punch; eventually the cycle of violence escalates and becomes more brutal and life-threatening. Some women say they have been abused even while they are pregnant. Some report that, as the constant terror continues, they begin playing a number of “mind games” to avoid injury. They learn to read their husband’s moods and stay out of their way. They learn to obey his every command like a small child so they will not antagonize him when he is in a bad mood. These women usually have very low self-esteem. They feel stupid and unworthy. Some may even believe that they are “bad” in some way and deserve this kind of treatment.

Most people wish to appear “normal” to the outside world. Battered family members feel ashamed of the terror they experience. Family members who are abused go to great lengths to give the semblance of a normal family to their friends and community. Women hide their bruised faces with make-up and dark sunglasses. They make excuses for what happened by saying they have been clumsy and injured themselves. They wear long-sleeved clothing to hide bruises on their arms. Alcohol abuse is often a great factor in setting off an abusive rage. Afterwards, the husband may shower his wife with gifts, cry, say he is sorry and it will never happen again, and beg her forgiveness. Unless he has had some interventive counselling, these feelings of remorse are only temporary until the next beating episode occurs.

After many years of injuries, women develop the battered wife syndrome. In this very delicate mental state, a woman has intense fear for her safety and perhaps her life every waking moment. Overpowering fear may eventually push her to take drastic action— killing him before she fears he will kill her. The battered wife syndrome has been used successfully by some lawyers defending their female clients when these women have murdered their male partners. One report publishes the chilling statistic that women are most likely to be killed by people they have formed a relationship with (less than one tenth are killed by strangers). Women are more likely to be killed in their own homes than anywhere else.

One solution for reducing violence against women in the home is to give more social and economic support to women to reduce their dependency on the men who abuse them. At one time a woman had to lay charges against her husband herself when abuse occurred. Many women were terrified to do that for fear that the husband would seek a vicious form of revenge. Now the police will automatically take action on her behalf and will lay an assault charge on the abusive spouse. Avoiding an abusive relationship is easier than escaping once one is involved. Therefore, the following article should be read very carefully.

16 - Effect of Violence in the Media

Violence is invited into our homes daily through the media of television. Of course, violence is referred to in other media as well (radio and newspapers), but the effects of violence through television are by far the most dramatic and negative. How bad is the influence of violence on television? Are we overreacting?

Two types of programs that the average person may believe to be harmless can, in fact, be the worst offenders for violence. One is cartoons where characters engage in repeated acts of aggression in an attempt to portray comedy. A “real person” would be dead or seriously injured by any one of these behaviours, but the cartoon characters get up, brush themselves off, and continue. This may give small children the idea that they can hit their brothers or sisters on the head with something without serious consequences.

The other type of television program that can have quite a negative impact on viewers is the news. News programs can be upsetting because we realize these events have actually happened. When viewers see the negative coverage condensed into a one-hour or halfhour news broadcasts, they may conclude that violence is more common than it actually is.

When people are immersed in scenes of violence on television, 95% of the studies affirm that a person’s attitudes, values, and often their behaviours will be affected. In other words, there is a correlation or a connection between seeing violence and aggressive behaviour. Exposure to violence in the media desensitizes people. Once desensitized to violence, people are more likely to become tolerant of violence in the real world. In some cases, people are no longer hesitant to use violence against others.

Studies confirm that children become very aggressive in their behaviour after watching a violent episode on TV. Studies show that television violence has a greater effect on children who are academically low achievers and on those who are naturally aggressive. To predict violent behaviour in adults, look at violent behaviour in children. One of the main predictors of adult criminality is early exposure to television violence.

What can be done to reduce the amount of violent programming on television? If the public does not watch this type of program, it will quickly disappear because television producers and distributors are very sensitive to their ratings. Parents can control their children’s experience with television material in other positive ways. First, children are highly influenced by their parents’ viewing habits especially during the younger years. Parents can set limits on the types of shows their children are allowed to watch. Parents can watch programs with their children. They can discuss and challenge television so that children will learn to develop critical and analytical skills as viewers.

17 - Youth Crime and the Young Offenders’ Act

In recent years, many people across Canada voiced displeasure with the Young Offenders’ Act. They wrote letters to the editors of newspapers, phoned talk shows to complain, and signed petitions by the thousands asking for changes. In 2002, the act was revised and renamed as the Youth Criminal Justice Act.

Most people have a perception of the average criminal to be an adult male, but when a young person commits a violent crime, that notion is shattered. It is upsetting to learn that a young person is responsible for destructive behaviour. When young Canadians commit homicide, the targets for their vengeance are parents (15% of the time), other family members (20%), total strangers (30%), and friends and acquaintances (35%). If they commit homicide, younger children are more likely to kill family members. Most frequently, youth homicides involve males killing other males. Female killers are responsible for only about 10% of the youth homicides.

How serious is youth crime? Earlier in this lesson, you learned how the media can deeply affect our perceptions about a situation. Following are some statistics on youth homicide.

Youth (12 to 17 years) accused of homicide, by sex, Canada, 1980 to 2010

We do know that vandalism and theft have increased somewhat. There seems to be an increase in the incidents of gang activity and gang violence. Teenage assaults have several reasons: to steal special kinds of clothing, for initiation into a gang, and to dominate weaker peers. Extortion of money or goods occurs when a stronger person intimidates a weaker one to meet certain demands to avoid a robbery or beating. Another slang name for this activity is “taxing”. Sometimes swarmings occur whereby a young person is surrounded by a gang of teenagers and is assaulted or robbed in a flurry of violence. Often the victim is silenced by the fact that the assault was perpetrated by a gang who could attack once again if the gang’s identity is revealed.

Gang-related homicides, Canada, 1991 to 2010

What factors have caused the public to believe that youth crime is out of control in Canada? Schools and communities have developed a Zero Tolerance Policy regarding altercations between young people. In the past, a school yard fight would have been resolved among school administration, parents, the students involved, and maybe the police. With a zero tolerance policy toward aggressive or violent behaviour, many of these incidents now come before the courts even when assaults are relatively minor.

Many people blame the wording and enforcement of the Young Offenders Act (YOA) as the cause of many of the problems with delinquent young people. Passed in 1984, the Young Offenders Act governed young people between the ages of 12 and 18 years involved in criminal activity . A child under 12 years is not considered criminally responsible for his/her actions. The YOA specifies much shorter terms for juvenile offenders. For example, three years is the maximum sentence a young person receives for the more serious crimes of aggravated assault and murder. The names and photographs of young offenders cannot be published or made know to the public. Although the reasons behind these rules might be worthy, they can lead to serious problems. For example, the police find it difficult to apprehend dangerous young offenders because their identities cannot be made known to the public. Therefore, it is not possible for the public to provide tips leading to an arrest. Also, many children under 12 are used by older criminals to commit crimes or conceal evidence because these children have immunity from being convicted. This act was replaced in 2002 by the Youth Criminal Justice Act, which modified some procedures.

What are some of the reasons behind youth crime? Family problems are at the top of the list. Some children are abused, serious conflicts occur in the home, and parents themselves might be involved in criminal activities. Some families live in crippling conditions of poverty. Authority of the parents has been seriously undermined in some cases. Some young criminals come from one-parent homes. The parent in charge is too overwhelmed by many other concerns including making a living to give the children the attention they need. One sociologist boldly stated that the single most effective program to reduce the crime rate would be provide programs to reduce the number of pregnant teens who are not prepared for the responsibility of child-rearing.

Besides making changes in the home life of disadvantaged youngsters, school problems can contribute to criminal tendencies. A child who faces continual failure and conflict in the school may drift into crime. A young person’s drug or alcohol abuse with delinquent friends may seem innocent at first, but it can lead to more serious types of antisocial behaviour and eventually into crime.

18 - Kleptomania and Pyromania

Kleptomania

The deep-seated urge to steal things is known as kleptomania. The kleptomaniac may steal from retail stores or even from the homes of friends and acquaintances. Most kleptomaniacs are women (up to 90%), but young boys and young men may also be involved.

One unique feature of kleptomania is that stealing does not occur because the person needs the item and does not have the money to buy it. The kleptomaniacs often come from financially comfortable families. They usually do not use the items they steal but just accumulate them in a collection, or they may even throw the articles away. They may steal the same kind of article over and over.

The emotions that arise during the acts of theft are very similar to those of sexual excitement. Danger is associated with the act of stealing which is illegal. The kleptomaniac associates this tension with sexual excitement and gratification.

Not all kleptomaniacs are stimulated in a sexual way by stealing items. In these cases motivation may come from lack of emotional warmth during childhood or from harsh treatment by parents or guardians. These kleptomaniacs steal for revenge against people who are linked to parental authority, such as store owners or the police.

The kleptomaniacs do not plan in advance to steal something. Usually at an opportune time, they have overpowering impulses to take something. Unsuccessfully, they try to talk themselves out of doing this deed and eventually take the item. After they have stolen, they are overcome by tremendous feelings of guilt, humiliation, and remorse. They are seized by the need for punishment, which may explain why they continue to steal in an unskillful manner until they are caught.

Pyromania

The compulsive urge to set fires is known as pyromania. The pyromaniac should not be confused with the arsonist whose goal in starting a fire is tied with some type of financial gain such as collecting insurance money or destroying a business that is not profitable. However, anyone who intentionally or recklessly starts a fire will be charged with arson. Most fires are set for fraudulent reasons (to collect insurance money). Some fires are started to cover a crime such as homicide or theft; the fire damages the evidence.

What are some of the reasons behind the pyromaniac’s dangerous and destructive behaviours? First, some want to show defiant responses to authority. They want to show rebellion against the law, and they view the police as authority figures like their fathers for example. A second reason is linked to hostility and aggression stemming from rejection in childhood. By setting fires that endanger lives and property, the pyromaniac is satisfying aggressive, destructive urges that were unresolved from childhood. The pyromaniac delights in setting a fire because it is a very powerful agent of destruction with which he can identify. The third motive is linked to sexual excitement and sexual conflict. The person may associate fire with sexual stimulation and expression. Many words in our language connect fire and sexual excitement. For example: “flames of passion”, “playing with fire” (when you willingly go into a sexually dangerous situation), “being on fire” with sexual arousal, feeling “hot” or excited about someone.

All the activities surrounding a fire are dangerous and exciting, which adds to the fascination.
Pyromaniacs feel compelled to watch the fires they start and their sexual excitement builds until they reach a point of gratification. Once that has passed, they may experience intense feelings of guilt.

19 - The Psychopath

Psychopaths are individuals who continually participate in antisocial acts. They feel no guilt, remorse, or shame for their wrongdoings. They have a careless disregard for the rights of others. Psychopaths are devoid of any real feelings and values. They have no true emotions. They are immune to anxiety or fear and, therefore, they are not worried about punishment or obeying rules. A psychopath can destroy a colleague, a neighbour, a member of the family without so much as a backward glance or a flicker of guilt. They have no genuine loyalties. They have one focus: to be winners themselves even if it is at the expense of someone else. The “genuine” psychopath can use these qualities to be a sharp and ruthless business person.

Psychopaths appear incapable of either designing or following a life plan with worthwhile goals. They may be moved to antisocial behaviour without warning and become suddenly aggressive or violent without provocation or reason. Unfortunately, psychopaths have developed no sound insights to account for their behaviour. Therefore, selfimprovement can be a lengthy and difficult process. Basically, they do not have the will to change or improve.

By now you are probably curious to know how or why a person feels this way. Earlier in this course, you studied Freud and the three parts of the personality—the id, the ego, and the superego or the conscience. The conscience gives us inner moral principles and a sense of right and wrong. The psychopath has no conscience. If you asked a psychopath: is this situation right or wrong, good or bad, they can recite the correct answer. The problem is they have no commitment to follow through and behave in the correct manner.

In summary, the psychopath is intelligent, outwardly charming, vain, impulsive, deceptive, unreliable, callous, insincere, egocentric, emotionally undeveloped, demanding of immediate need satisfaction, and unresponsive to interpersonal relationships. They are skilled liars. They are social predators doing whatever they want to whomever they can trick or control.

Approximately 1% of the population is psychopathic. The observation once a psychopath, always a psychopath is likely true. Psychopathy is not a type of mental illness characterized by the onset of symptoms at some time. Many experts now believe that psychopaths are born; they are not formed from negative elements in their upbringing. Many psychopaths come from normal loving homes; they are not always the victims of abuse. One theory suggests that in the psychopath’s formative years, the mechanism that develops the conscience is faulty. In the shaping of a conscience, the conditioning process involves the pairing of a stimulus (punishment) with a response (fear, anxiety, guilt). When a person matures, threats are not necessary to convince the normal person to refrain from antisocial behaviour; they have become self-disciplined. In the case of the psychopath, the socialization process just described has been severely interrupted.

Another theory states the origin of the psychopathic personality can be explained by the parental rejection hypothesis. Some parents make no secret that they did not want a child in the first place. These unwanted children may be frequently abused by the parents. Psychopaths are alienated from parents with serious consequences:

• They disregard social standards and values.
• They disrespect authority in general, which they view as an extension of parental influence.
• They do not develop empathy or emotional identification with others.
• They learn to hate instead of love.

There are psychopathic children. Even some preschoolers can show these deviant characteristics: lack of empathy, fearlessness, being highly active, reacting to others as if they have no feelings, and not being concerned with respect to other people.

Why is the psychopath so potentially dangerous? Without a conscience, psychopaths are capable of committing any crime from robbery to murder. Psychopaths can destroy people they have close relationships with by ruining them financially or tearing them apart psychologically and emotionally. When people have no concern for their fellow human beings, they are seriously disadvantaged in interpersonal relationships. They do not see themselves as being abnormal. They are not committed to counselling or therapy. They are not interested in rehabilitation.

20 - Sexual Assault

Sometimes sexual assault appears under the heading of rape as well. It is a deliberate, violent act of sexual degradation. Sometimes sexual intercourse occurs against a person’s will (with or without injury to the victim). Sometimes the assault involves touching, or fondling of a person’s private body parts without their permission. Sexual assault sometimes includes other forms of violence against the person that occur in conjunction with the sexual encounter, such as beating or slashing inflicted with or without weapons.

What causes a person to commit sexual assault? Intimidation and fear are used to control and overpower someone against his or her will. The rapist has deep feelings of inadequacy that lead to violence. The rapist ambiguously views his victim as both a desired person and a despised one. Rape is most commonly a transgression by men against women, although homosexual rape occurs too.

Most rapes are planned either by the lone rapist or a gang. Sometimes a particular victim may be selected prior to the act. Or the idea to rape may be present, and the selection of a victim is left to chance when someone appears in the wrong spot at an opportune time for the assailant.

Sexual assault is risked in a variety of situations. Unfortunately, women are more at risk to sexual assault from people they know than from total strangers. Date rape is relatively easy for the aggressor because the woman assumes she is in a safe, friendly, and trusting relationship. Women who are separated or divorced from their spouses may be under continued risk of sexual assault from ex-partners in some circumstances. Gradually the law is recognizing that sexual assault may also occur in a marriage where one spouse controls the other sexually and may use some measure of force for sexual gratification.

Unlike victims of other crimes, the issue of resistance or lack of consent is very important and must be proven to the authorities by the rape victim. A common myth that still persists regarding rape is that the victim “was asking for it”. Some people hold the stereotype that the “victim” was an attractive young lady wearing provocative clothing. The facts are quite different. It is horrifying to know that the youngest known rape victim was a tiny infant and the oldest recorded rape victim was a women in her nineties.

The possibility of being sexually assaulted is a threat to anyone. It means that certain freedoms of independence cannot be taken for granted. To reduce the threat of rape, an individual is generally encouraged to conceal his/her personal identity (on mailboxes, apartment doors, and telephones) if living alone.

21 - Cults

The word “cult” denotes mystery, danger, and power. Most people feel a tinge of fear; others may decide that for all of those reasons cults must be exciting. Originally the word cult meant strict devotion to a person or thing. That idea sounds innocent enough. But a more precise idea of a cult is a group that “uses” and controls its members in ways that demand strict adherence to the loyalty of the group often with harmful emotional, psychological, and financial consequences to the cult member.

Cults focus on various themes such as religion, politics, selfimprovement, and marketing (or moneymaking projects). Cults purport that they are the only way to salvation or the only way to save the world. Many religious cults are based on Christian teachings, but the leader (pastor) assumes dictatorial power unlike a “normal” church where the pastor and congregation work together. A white supremist organization is an example of a political cult. Therapeutic or self-improvement cults focus on the person’s desire for positive changes. The cult may advertise that it has found new revolutionary methods or exciting new breakthroughs to reach this goal. Marketing cults usually target young people struggling to find employment who may answer newspaper ads that promise challenging, exciting jobs with unbelievable financial rewards. In the end, these new recruits sell door-todoor or become street peddlers for little monetary returns.

Some common characteristics distinguish cults from ordinary groups:

• They have a charismatic leader, someone who is dynamic with a sparkling, magnetic personality. All successful groups require good leaders, but the cult leader seems to have an unusual degree of power and charm over the members.
• Although the cult may list idealistic goals, the real reason for its existence is money, sex, and/or power.
• The techniques the cult uses to recruit new members are deceptive so a person will be drawn into the group without being aware of the full implications of the decision.
• The cult influences and bends the thinking of the individual similar to mind control activities, which means the cult directs and manipulates the person’s ideas to suit the objectives of the cult. This is accomplished by subconsciously promoting the message of the cult in a carefully controlled way over a period of time. The result is that members become completely controlled by the leader. The cult’s method for recruiting new members and indoctrinating them follows a skillful, well planned program.
• After a member has been indoctrinated, physical control and even violence is used to keep the person “in line”. Peer pressure, threats, and sometimes physical confinement are used to maintain strict control and to keep the members from leaving.
• To strengthen the control the cult has over the individual, members are separated from outside friends and especially their families. While the person is being isolated from their family, they are being showered with affection and attention from cult members.

Are cults present right here in Alberta? Cults are found in both urban and rural areas of the province. University campuses are one area for cults to attract new members. (Remember that is only one area for recruitment.) The idea of cults soliciting members at a place of higher learning is inconsistent with the image of a cult member as being a gullible, simple-minded person. In fact, many cult members are very intelligent people, but in the first few months of university life, a person may feel vulnerable and alone. These students may be new to the city and experience a “down” period in their lives. Cults do not appeal to the intelligence of the individual but rather to their emotional void at the time. The cult uses friendship as the initial bait to attract new recruits. The new university student may be invited to a “gathering” to meet friendly and caring cult members. At that point the process of gradually getting more and more of a commitment from the person begins in earnest.

Some people confuse cults with Satanism (a belief in the devil) or involvement with witches (wicca, which is paganism or the belief that God exists in everything). Both Satanism and witchcraft are part of the occult or supernatural.

Young people in their early teens may join a Satanic group for self-gratification or to attain power over others. Similar to cult members, occult members are usually very intelligent people, but are underachievers in what they try to accomplish. People involved in occult groups usually dabble in the activities for a few years, grow out of it, and move on to more normal interests. That might make their temporary involvement in something like Satanism seem innocuous. Some people get very emotionally dependent on Satanic groups. Tragically, some individuals may harm themselves physically and may even go as far as commit suicide.

Remember, cults can take many forms, styles, and philosophies. Cults are not illegal, but they are often involved in illegal activities. Ultimately, cults will destroy individuality. Should you become a cult member, you will lose the power to think for yourself, grow as an individual, and be your own person. You will be financially drained. Your mind will be empty of those special qualities that allow you to explore life on your own terms and take whatever pathways you choose. You may enter these groups believing that you can remain on the fringe and maintain your independence, but cult philosophy is wise and cunning in either unconsciously drawing total commitment from you or casting you aside if you cannot be used in their ways.

22 - Optional Reading – Criminal Profiles: Analyzing Homicides

The authors of the content material (ADLC) for this course gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Detective Hugh Frey of the Edmonton City Police in preparing material for the following section.

When a homicide occurs, police investigators must analyze psychologically the darkest side of human behaviour. For all normal human beings, the topic of murder is distasteful, but it is also fascinating to discover how this frightening aspect of human behaviour is analyzed in the absence of actual witnesses. Some of you may not want to read or contemplate this topic. Therefore, the final section of this lesson is completely optional.

The most dramatic and sensational of all crimes is murder. At first one might think that murder is murder, but there are over fifteen different categories of homicide, such as contract killing, gang-motivated killing, kidnap murder, product tampering homicide, drug murder, insurance inheritance-related homicide, felony murder (property crime is the motive), personal cause homicide (for example, domestic homicide), erotomania (for example, murder involving a fantasy based on romantic love), revenge killing, argument/conflict murder, authority killing (for example, the dismissed employee believes he has been wronged by the authority figure), extremist homicide for political or religious reasons, hostage murder, sexual homicide, group cause homicide (for example, a cult murder), and mercy homicide (for example, the case of a person helping a terminally ill person to die). Mass murder involves the homicides of more than three people. A spree murder involves a continual murder rampage that occurs among more than two locations. Serial murders mean separate homicides by the same person over a period of time.

In the absence of witnesses to the homicide, police investigators face an extremely difficult task because the victim is deceased and cannot provide information. In almost all cases, the offenders will not be helpful in supplying evidence damaging to themselves. Investigators must study other data to piece together the story of the tragedy. The investigation of a homicide studies three important elements: background of the victim, an analysis of the crime scene, and the nature of the exchange between the criminal and the victim. The first two elements are called primary sources of physical evidence. Evidence is called the silent witness because it can be used to reveal who the offender is and what the motive was. Secondary sources of evidence are information that is recovered from the offender’s residence. Forensic analysis is conducted on hair, hair fibres, blood, saliva, and semen.

To begin the investigation by taking a close look at the victims may seem unusual because they are the innocent parties, but answering questions may lead to the motive, which in turn may lead to the offender. Victimology is victim history, which may explain why a particular person was targeted for the murder. Was the victim known to the offender? Information considered pertinent in victimology includes employment, income, lifestyle, marital status, reputation, personality, family, friends, drug/alcohol use, leisure activities, dating habits, and transportation commonly used by this person.

Once the victim has been carefully analyzed, the investigator collects data known as crime scene indicators. How many crime scenes are involved? (Was the body found at the scene of the homicide?) Did the crime occur indoors or outdoors? Did it occur during the day or night? Did the crime occur in a busy public area or in a secluded spot? Can how long the offender stayed at the homicide scene be predicted? Did the offender feel comfortable committing the offense in that location? How many offenders were there? Was the crime scene organized or disorganized, indicating if the murder was premeditated and also reflecting the offender’s level of criminal sophistication. Was the weapon brought to the crime scene or was it a nearby object? Was the weapon present at the crime scene after the murder? Was the body openly displayed or was an attempt made to conceal it? Was the body intentionally arranged in a certain way or left in a degrading position? Were personal belongings taken from the victim as a kind of “souvenir” for the offender? What other objects might be missing from the crime scene?

Eventually, police investigators might make a series of educated guesses about the offender, predicting age, racial background, residency, employment or skills, home life, social skills, and general personality. To be successful, police investigators must put as many pieces of the puzzle together as possible. The final piece is the offender. Eventually, this person will be caught. Will it be sooner or later?

Lesson Review

This lesson provided some interesting perspectives on the roles we perform. Groups have many special characteristics that influence the attitudes and behaviours of people who work together.