UNIT 4: RESISTANCE TO LIBERALISM

1. OVERVIEW

In Unit Three, you learned about the evolution of liberalism. You learned that political and economic systems in liberal democracies changed gradually from what is known as classical liberalism to modern liberalism, or the liberalism of today.

From its inception until today, liberalism was extended gradually to apply to all citizens in a nation. Working class people, new immigrants, and women obtained the right to vote. Governments began to provide positive liberties so that all people were free to pursue their own goals, regardless of their backgrounds, through the provision of education and social programs. Labour standards and labour unions developed to deal with the concerns of workers. Human rights were extended to all, including women, children, and members of minority groups.

However, at the same time that modern liberalism was developing in many parts of the world, other nations rejected the idea that liberal democracy could ever respond to some the problems that seemed to accompany liberal thought. Communism in the Soviet Union and other parts of the world reflected more collectivist values. Fascism in Germany rejected liberal principles in favour of greater government control and ultranationalism.

The conflict between ideologies influenced the political and economic structures which continues to influence today's world.

The last part of the unit focuses on how resistance to liberal principles occurs in Canada as well as in other parts of the world. Aboriginal groups, with their more collectivist worldview, reject some liberal principles. Religious groups and those who believe society needs to protect the environment also reject some fundamental beliefs of liberalism. In our world today, liberalism has been imposed on various nations against their will.

Take notes about reasons people and their governments reject liberalism and if the techniques they use are justified.

Read the pages that follow.
Study carefully all photos, artwork, propaganda posters, and historical film clips.
Read the required textbook readings.

As you complete this unit, consider the issue question:

To what extent is resistance to liberalism justified?

This unit has three sections:

Why and how did Germany and Russia reject liberalism?
How did conflict between ideologies shape our modern world?
How does resistance to liberalism continue to influence the world today?

2. Introduction

Although many economic and political systems embraced liberalism as the best way to provide a good life for all citizens, people and governments in some parts of the world felt that liberal democracy could never work effectively, no matter how much it evolved.

In Europe, the people of Russia had lived under authoritarian rule for centuries. Peasants were poor and had few rights. Although some democratic changes were implemented early in the 20th century, the people felt changes were coming too slowly. During World War I, a revolution led to the formation of a communist state (the Russian Revolution of 1917).

In contrast, Germany was an industrial power with a democratic government. Similar to most of Europe, the country was devastated by World War I. When the world's nations gathered to end the war, the victors decided Germany was entirely to blame and, therefore, must make reparations to the remainder of Europe. This, coupled with the global economic recession of the 1930s, led the people to despair. Eventually, they supported the fascist leader Adolf Hitler who promised them hope-and relief from payment of the reparations.

The ideologies of both the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany developed because the people believed the current way of doing things was hindering their possibilities of "the good life". They did not see any potential for a better life in a liberal democracy. The fundamental beliefs and values of the two ideologies were very different, but in both countries, a totalitarian regime resulted.

The ideologies of the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany were were very different, yet they were both founded on the discontent of citizens and their leaders.

Through a study of primary sources, including documents, speeches, photos, and videos, you will explore why and how ideologies rejected liberalism.

Consider the issue question:

How did Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia reject liberalism?

3. Characteristics of Totalitarianism

Fascism and Communism are two ideological systems that result in dictatorship. There are many types of dictatorship or political control around the world. A totalitarian political system is one in which the government has almost total control over the lives of its citizens. The government does not obtain its power or legitimacy from the support of the people, and it stays in power by state-sanctioned violence, propaganda, and indoctrination.

Read "The Nature of Totalitarian Regimes", on pages 167 to 168 in your text Perspectives on Ideology.

As you read about totalitarianism, take notes on the following:

Is it possible for totalitarian regimes to value any of the principles of liberalism?
What values and beliefs lie behind totalitarian rule?
Do you think these ideas are justified? Explain.

Are there any advantages to a dictatorship? Consider the following possibilities, thinking about the values behind both collectivism and individualism.

Possible Advantages	Possible Disadvantages
work towards the collective interest a sense of collective responsibility & purpose political stability use resources efficiently to meet national goals rapid swift action to address needs	loss of individual rights and freedoms loss of private property inefficiency and bureaucracy corruption apathy and cynicism struggles for political power elitism

Watch the 1946 black and white film entitled Despotism produced by the Encyclopedia Britannica.

How well does the film reflect your understanding of totalitarianism?
Do you think this film is propaganda in any way, or does it just state the facts?

Many countries have an authoritarian government (dictatorship)? To what extent do they:

have extensive local, regional, and national organization?
use secret police using terror as a weapon?
establish professional, cultural, and youth groups to support the leader, often with forced participation ?
indoctrinate through education?
control the media, including use of propaganda and censorship?
redirect popular discontent (use scapegoats)?

4. Emergence of Fascism

Fascism is an ideology that rejects liberal democracy in favour of an authoritarian government. After World War I, two countries in particular - Italy and Germany rejected liberalism in favour of this fascist ideologies.

Why did the German people adopt Nazi (fascist) ideologies?

1915 French caricature of German emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II biting into the earth, with the caption "The Greedy One: Too Hard."

How did the people of Germany reject the liberal democracy that came to power at the end of World War I to support Hitler and the fascist Nazi party by 1933?

Germany had been a powerful empire before World War I (1914-1918), ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II who was intent on expanding Germany and its international power.

The French postcard to the left shows the negative feelings in much of Europe towards the Kaiser and Germany because of their expansionist policies.

Although Germany was not the only country to blame for World War I, anti-German sentiments became even stronger after its defeat. When Germany was defeated, Wilhelm was forced to step down.

Treaty of Versailles: At the end of World War I, more than 16 million people were dead and Europe was in ruins. The war ended with the Treaty of Versailles. The victorious nations (primarily France, Great Britain, and United States) wanted to prevent a war of this scale from re-occurring. They wanted to ensure that Germany would never have military power again.

The terms of the treaty included the following:

German admission of guilt for causing World War I
Permanent loss of German territory
German payment of heavy reparations-in today's terms, over US$400 billion
Limits of the German army 100 000 soldiers and German navy to 15 000 men and few vessels, and no military equipment to be manufactured or imported
The Rhineland (bordering France, Belgium, and Netherlands) to be demilitarized
Kaiser Wilhelm to be tried as a war criminal

Economists estimate that in today's terms, the Treaty of Versailles would have taken until 1988 to repay. In fact, Germany finished repaying the damages in 2010.

Weimar Republic: After World War I, Germany became a parliamentary democracy based on liberal principles, including free and open elections and the freedom to establish and belong to any political party. An elected president was the head of state, and the Reichstag was their new parliament. However, the democratic Weimar Republic (Germany, 1919 to 1933) did not gain the trust of German citizens.

Many Germans were angry with the government for signing a treaty that they believed stood in the way of their economic success as individuals and a nation. Some, such as Adolf Hitler, believed they should not have admitted defeat in World War I and that the German army had a strong chance of winning that war.

The shame they felt as a nation was demoralizing. Fear of communism, political extremism, hostility from the victors of World War I, and a faltering economy all presented challenges.

Notice the archival photo of Germans protesting the 'brutal peace' brought on by the Treaty of Versailles in front of the Reichstag May 15, 1919.

Between 1919-1933, an increasing number of Germans supported Hitler's National Socialist Party. Why?

Mass Demonstrations of the Treaty in front of the Reichstag 1919

The brown-beige shaded area shows the borders of Weimar Germany in 1919.

Creative Commons BY-SA2.5

Public Domain

Please read and watch the video on The Aftermath of WWI and the Rise of Nazism.

How did Hitler rise to power?

The Rise of the Nazi Party:
Adolf Hitler was a powerful public speaker and the leader of the National Socialist Party. He was able to capitalize on the anger of the German people towards the Treaty of Versailles and the perceived failure of the Weimar Republic to improve the lives of ordinary people. He drew upon common suspicions of the Jews who many blamed for the financial crisis and the rise of communism. He inspired hope and confidence in the Germans by promising them not only employment and economic success but also a return to the traditions of the past and what many saw as their rightful place as a powerful Third Reich, or third empire.

Don't be fooled though - the Nazi party was not left wing or socialist as we have studied it. In fact, it was a far, right wing violent ideology.

How did Hitler & the Nazi's Gain Power after World War I?

First Attempt at Power: The Munich Beerhall Putsch (military overthrow) of 1923 was Hitler's first attempt to obtain power. He and other party members, backed by several hundred SA 9 (or Stormtroopers) entered a large beer hall and told the crowd that they had overthrown the elected government. His attempted violent takeover failed, and he was sentenced to treason and jailed.

During his time in jail, Hitler learned wrote his infamous book Mein Kampf or 'My Struggle'. By publishing this text, Hitler's views gained more exposure.

Hitler was eventually pardoned in 1925. The failed coup led Hitler to enter politics and gain power through legitimate means.

It took several years, but by 1928, Hitler and his Nazi party began to make steady gains in national elections.

Although the German government prospered until the Great Depression began in 1929, the depression had a negative effect on Germany. Crippling war reparations combined with the desire of the German people to redeem themselves internationally made Germany vulnerable to a strong leader who promised them hope, even if it meant the loss of some freedom.

This is a first edition of Mein Kampf published July 1925. This copy remains in exhibit of the German Historical Museum in Berlin.

Chancellor of the Reichstag: The year following Hitler's election in which the National Socialist Party received a third of the popular vote, Hitler was appointed Chancellor. A few days after his appointment, someone tried to burn the Reichstag, and Hitler used the threat of a further communist takeover of Germany to convince President Hindenburg to revoke civil liberties so order could be maintained.

Hitler began to exert total control over the government; he eliminated any opposition, and overturned democratic practices. Less than a month after the Reichstag fire, the Enabling Acts were passed; these gave Hitler and the Nazis complete control of the state. These were set to last for four years, but they were renewed in 1937, 1941, and 1944.

The Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Acts included the following provisions:

restrictions on freedom of opinion, freedom of the press, and freedom of organization and assembly
elimination of private phone calls, mail, and telegrams
elimination of the need for search warrants
passing of laws without approval of the parliament
banning of all political parties except the Nazi Party

In June 1934, Hitler ordered the head of the SA to be assassinated. Hitler saw the powerful and popular army as a threat to his leadership. A common tactic in dictatorships is the elimination of any threat to the leader's authority. When Hitler eliminated his own men murdered, this became known as the "Night of the Long Knives".

When the old President Hindenburg eventually died in August of that year, Hitler declared himself the sole Fuhrer, or leader.

Read "Economic Turmoil", "The Legacy of Authoritarian Rule," and "Nationalism, Militarism, and Law and Order" on pages 173 to 175 of your text Perspectives on Ideologies.

As you read, take notes on the following:

Why did the German people reject liberalism?
What values and beliefs underlie the ideology of fascism?

View the Life Magazine slide show, "Nazi Thugs and Thinkers" here.

After considering the context in which Nazi fascism developed, think about the issue question:

To what extent is resistance to liberalism justified?

5. Life in Nazi Germany

Auschwitz-Birkenau, now a memorial museum in Poland, was the site of a concentration camp where an estimated two million people were put to their death. © Courtesy http://www.upthebanner.com

When you think about Nazi Germany, what images come into your mind?

Adolf Hitler and his mesmerizing speeches?
Nazi rallies where thousands raised their arms in salute to the Führer, calling out "Heil Hitler"?
Tanks rumbling across recognized borders?
Military expansion leading to world war?
Concentration camps where millions were put to death?

Many atrocities were committed by the Nazis whose fascist ideology and totalitarian practices led to war and untold suffering. But what did they believe? How were they able to take control of a liberal democratic nation filled with reasoning people and convince them to persecute people according to race, ability, and gender orientation? How were they able to convince a nation that their race was superior to all others and deserved to rule all neighbouring lands? How were they able to organize the people to go into battle for the second time in just over twenty years?

Although we know that life for Jews and other members of persecuted minorities was tragic, what was life like for the average German?

Hitler was not unique in his hatred of the Treaty of Versailles or his belief that the Jews were to blame for most of Germany's problems. He drew from history and folklore to rekindle the pride of Germans in their history, which gave them hope for the future. Ethnocentrism, or the idea that certain races were superior to others, was common in Great Britain and United States at that time, so the idea that the German or Aryan people were part of a superior class of people was not at all new.

Life for Aryan Germans was good under the Nazi Party. Not only did they feel pride in their fatherland and their leader, they also experienced economic prosperity. However, life for the Jewish population, as well as other minorities, suffered terribly under extensive political, social and economic persecution.

Read "The Program of the Nazi Party" on page 176 and "Lives of Aryan Germans" on pages 191-192 in your text, Perspectives on Ideology

As you read, consider the characteristics and themes of ideologies represented by the Nazi Party including their:

belief in the nature of human beings,
how society should be structured,
how they interpreted history, and their vision for the future.

Also consider how the ideology deals with the themes introduced in Unit One: nation, class, race, relationship to the environment, gender, and religion.

The Corporate Economy

Remember, fascism is a political ideology but it does not have a set of economic ideas. The Nazi economy combined elements of individualism and collectivism but it was hardly liberal. Its domestic economy was aimed completely towards the goals of the government, including eliminating unemployment, increasing military production, and increasing consumer goods to raise the standard of living for the lower and middle classes. Trade unions were banned to eliminate labour unrest, but workers had no way to improve working conditions.

Although the Nazis believed in the ownership of private property, it was conditional upon how that property was used. If corporations and their owners put personal profit ahead of achieving national goals, their factories could be nationalized. Individuals and corporations were allowed to own private property, but they were controlled by the state. Government regulations, subsidies, quotas, tariffs, and a complex taxation system meant that companies that followed Nazi rule were rewarded while others ran the risk of losing everything, including their lives.

For example:

Volkswagen, BMW, Porsche, and Ford all used prisoners of war to work in their factories.
Krupps and Bayer had production plants in Auschwitz (the huge concentration camp).
Hugo Boss designed and manufactured the SS uniform.

"I want everyone to keep what he has earned subject to the principle that the good of the community takes priority over that of the individual. But the State should retain control; every owner should feel himself to be an agent of the State-. The Third Reich will always retain the right to control property owners."

Adolf Hitler

The focus on industrial production paid off, and soon after the Nazis came to power, full employment was restored, consumption of consumer goods increased, marriages and births increased dramatically, and the suicide rate of youths dropped by 80%. While other nations were still struggling with the Depression, Germany stabilized its debt, reduced interest rates, and restored its stock exchange. Its gross national product rose by 81% in the four years immediately after the Nazis took power.

Techniques of Dictatorship to Maintain Control:

Controlled Participation through extensive local, regional, and national party organizations, groups and mass rallies. Therefore citizens (supporters) feel as if they 'belong'. Establishment of professional, cultural, and youth groups that support the leader, often with forced participation.

The use of force and terror used as a weapon to ensure citizens follow the government and do not rebel. This includes the presence of secret police to promote a climate of fear and distrust.

Indoctrination through the use of propaganda and control of the education system from an early age. Total control of all forms of media ensure only the government's message is communicated to the people. Widespread use of censorship.

Redirection of popular discontent towards scapegoats or people the government claims is to blame for all of the country's problems. This directs the people's anger and blame for problems onto another group away from the government.

What techniques of dictatorship are reflected in the propaganda poster?

Nazi Poster included the caption "War employment of the Hitler Youth".

Learn more about how the Nazi's Total Control over Germany

Control and Opposition in Nazi Germany

As you read, take notes on the following:

What ideas are presented about the rejection of liberalism?
What values and beliefs lie behind the ideology of fascism?
What techniques of dictatorship did Hitler and the Nazis use to gain control?

Download, print, and take notes about Hitler on this card as a study tool.

6. QUIZ 4.1: NAZI GERMANY

Do the quiz
Reward yourself with a snack

7. The Holocaust

A Jewish woman walks towards the gas chambers with three young children after going through the selection process on the ramp at Auschwitz-Birkenau. © Courtesy U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum

What does the image to the left communicate to you? What do the details from the picture and the caption below tell you about the ideology of fascism?

In the picture, a hunched old woman walks with several children beside a railroad track. The woman and children all have their heads covered and bowed. One of the children is helping the smallest one walk. The body language of the old lady and the child who is walking behind suggests that they are miserable yet prepared to accept their fate. Beyond the group is a strong and high barbed wire fence, and beyond that, a barren field with a person seated against a concrete wall in the far background. The overwhelming mood of the image is of dejection and resignation.

One student wrote this:

...you can see the destruction of the family unit and evidence of how the psychological destruction of humans took place even before murder. To me, this picture captures the very essence of all that is tragic about the holocaust. You can almost put the dirge music to it in your head.

The story behind the photos on this page is fascinating. These photos were discovered by Holocaust survivor Lili Jacob, the only surviving member of her family, who had been placed in the infirmary at Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp because of typhus. When the camp was liberated by US soldiers, she went to the SS barracks to find some clothing. She found an album of photos (including some of herself) that had been collected to document the arrival, selection, and processing of Jews from Subcarpathian Rus, a small area now mostly in the Ukraine.

When she left the camp, she took the album with her and later allowed the photos to be reprinted for the Jewish community. The negatives were later discovered in a museum. The photos were later used in the Auschwitz trials in which those who ran the camp were tried for their actions. Lili, who by then had emigrated to United States, was brought to testify at the trial.

Using a technique called scapegoating, or the direction of popular discontent, Hitler and the Nazis blamed the Jews for everything that had gone wrong with Germany. They drew upon the already existing belief of some Germans that the "Aryan" race was superior to all others, and the anti-Semitic view that was already present in Europe and North America, that the Jews were to blame for the death of Christ and the collapse of the economy.

Read about anti-semitism on page 177 in your text, Perspectives on Ideology.

Jewish women and children from Subcarpathian Russia await selection on the ramp at Auschwitz-Birkenau. © Courtesy U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum

As they gained complete power over Germany, the Nazi attitudes against the Jews and any group they believed to be Untermenschen or "subhuman" escalated from oppression to persecution to extermination.

They practiced eugenics or enforced sterilization with the goal of allowing only those with desirable traits to reproduce. As a result, anyone who was disabled or deemed mentally deficient was sterilized. This went further when thousands of people who had been institutionalized were put to death. Others who were considered inferior and put to death included the Roma (Gypsies), blacks, homosexuals, and some religious groups such as Jehovah's Witnesses.

Under the new laws introduced by the Nazis, Jewish people were at first prohibited from holding certain jobs. Each Jew had to wear a yellow star to be identified as a Jew. Thousands of Jews fled the country, and those who tried to help them were punished severely. All Jewish children were expelled from school, and all Jewish businesses were closed. The Jewish people were rounded up, put on trains, and sent to concentration camps where millions were put into forced labour and killed eventually. An estimated 9 to 11 million people died, including 6 million Jews.

Read "Persecution of the Jews and Others" and "Nazi Eugenics" on pages 188 to 191 including the boxed text on the Nuremberg Laws on page 190 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

As you read about the Holocaust, take notes on the following:

What ideas are presented about the rejection of liberalism?
What values and beliefs lie behind the ideology of fascism?
How did the Nazis use the techniques of dictatorship to maintain total control?

Many excellent movies are available about the Holocaust, including Schindler's List, The Pianist, and The Boy in the Striped Pajamas, The Book Thief.
For more about Nazi Germany and the Holocaust, go to the US Holocaust Memorial Museum.

8. WWII

To fulfill the Third Reich dream of a restored empire of German-speaking people, the Nazis had to regain the territory they lost at the end of World War I.

By the mid 1930s, many nations had come to realize that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were not fair to Germany, and they were prepared to offer some concessions. Although the Treaty of Versailles forbid Germany from building their military, especially in the Rhineland, they proceeded to do just that. Soldiers were trained in the thousands and military equipment built or bought.

Why did other nations not step in? Read on!

Expansionism

Hitler and the Nazis believed that Germany needed more living space, or lebensraum (living room). Their first move was the annexation (or Anschlus) of Austria in March 1938 although Austria had never been part of the German Empire. Although other nations of Europe protested, none wanted to start another war with the Great Depression not yet over and World War I still on everyone's mind.

In September 1939, the Nazis marched into the Sudetenland, a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia.

Appeasement

Germany promised that this was the end of their expansion. The other nations of Europe wanted a diplomatic solution, so they agreed. Under the Munich Agreement, Germany, Britain, France, and Italy agreed that the Sudetenland would be returned to Germany and that no further territorial claims would be made by Germany. The Czech government (of which the Sudetenland was a part) was not invited to the discussion. The Munich Agreement was seen generally as an example of securing peace through diplomacy. In March 1939, Germany took over the remainder of Czechoslovakia.

War is Declared

Germany entered Poland on September 1, 1939, where they began a blitzkrieg, or lightning war that involved a heavily militarized attack, complete with tanks and other powerful weapons. France and most of the nations of the British Commonwealth declared war on Germany immediately.

Other nations soon followed, including the Soviet Union after the German invasion of USSR in 1941. Germany allied itself with fascist Italy. On the other side of the world, Japan was at war with China and other Asian countries. After Japan bombed Pearl Harbour in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, United States joined the war.

More than 70 million people died in World War II (1939-1945), the deadliest conflict in history.

In 1945, the war ended in a victory for the Allies. The Soviet Union and the United States became the world's two superpowers. Their opposing ideologies led to continuing conflict.

Consider the timeline of World War I on page 236 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

As you read, take notes on the following:

What values and beliefs lie behind the ideology of fascism?
Do you think these ideas are justified? Explain.

View the interactive website of the British Broadcasting Corporation, World War II.

9. Emergence of Communism in Russia

Russia was the largest country in the world, with a diverse geography, resources and cultures. It had been ruled by absolute monarchs and the Russian aristocracy for centuries. Most Russians were illiterate peasants who could not vote. Historically, most Russians had been serfs, labourers who were forced to work in the homes and fields of landowners in return for their protection. They had little or no income, few legal rights, and, therefore, little power over their own lives. Russia had not industrialized at the same rate as other European nations, and wealth was very unevenly distributed. In the mid-nineteenth century, the empire of the Romanov family comprised more than one-sixth of the earth's surface. It was a "whole world, self-sufficient, independent, and absolute" with the greatest wealth in Europe. Czar (sometimes spelled Tsar or Tzar) Nicholas II opposed Western ideas, including democratization.

Emancipation of the Serfs

In 1861, a huge liberal reform occurred with the emancipation of the serfs. Twenty-three million serfs were given the rights of citizens, including the right to marry without the consent of the landowner, the right to own property, and the right to own a business. Peasants who had been field workers could buy land from the landlords; household serfs gained their freedom but no land. However, this change was not entirely successful because many freed serfs could not afford to buy enough land that would feed their families. They borrowed money to buy land, and their loan payments were far more than they could afford.

Russian Revolution of 1905

© Around the Winter Palace,Michail I. Avilov.
Courtesy International Institute of Social History, Netherlands

In January 1905, unarmed workers and their families marched peacefully to the palace to petition for greater rights. Led by a Russian priest, Father Gapon, the workers asked for better working conditions, an eight-hour working day, fairer wages, and the right to vote. Influenced by liberal ideals, their demands were similar to demands of working people all over Europe. Unlike their counterparts in other nations, however, the people of Russia were not met with democratic reform. Instead, they were gunned down by the Imperial Guard in a massacre now known as Bloody Sunday in which at least 1000 people were killed.

Bloody Sunday triggered a wide range of reactions in the Russian Revolution of 1905. Protests, strikes by workers, and ethnic uprisings occurred across the country, leading to the eventual establishment of the Duma, or Russian parliament. Although the Czar promised greater freedoms for the people and power to the elected government, in reality he had no desire to give up his absolute control of the country.

Learn more about Russia before the 1917 Revolution. This provides insight into WHY many Russian people rejected liberal principles in favour of communism by the 1920s.

Failure of Democratic Reforms

The first Duma lasted for only ten weeks. The second Duma was composed of Social Democrats, Social Revolutionaries, and members of the right wing. Accused by the Prime Minister of plotting an armed overthrow of the Czar, the second Duma was dissolved quickly. New rules that gave greater power to landowners ensured that the rich had greater control, so the unrepresentative Third Duma lasted for its full five years.

World War I began in 1914, causing more problems for the Russian people. Food shortages, strikes by workers, and huge losses in the war all caused great anger towards the Czar. As in other industrializing countries, many farm workers had moved to the cities, resulting in a large urban labour force, many of whom were unemployed and starving. There was also a growing class of business people and professionals. These people were influenced increasingly by new and revolutionary political ideas.

Provisional Government

The Fourth Duma agreed to suspend its operation for the duration of World War I, but its members became increasingly unhappy with the way the Czar and the military were handling national affairs. The February Revolution of 1917 led to the abdication of the Czar and the formation of the Russian Republic. Its government was called the Provisional Government, also sometimes known as the Kerensky Government after its leader, a prominent socialist.

Although most Russians wanted to see Russia withdraw immediately from the war, it launched a new offensive instead, weakening its public support. The government was victim of a power struggle between left and right. Economic chaos added to the problems. Production decreased, industries shut down, the cost of living increased, and there was mass unemployment. Many of those who still had jobs went on strike. Foreign debt skyrocketed, and the country was on the verge of bankruptcy.

Russian Revolution 1917

By the fall of 1917, thousands of peasant uprisings were directed against landowners and attempts to punish the rioters enraged them more. Soldiers and sailors declared they no longer recognized the authority of the Provisional Government and refused to follow orders. The October Revolution of 1917 saw Lenin's Bolsheviks take power and a civil war followed from 1917 to 1922. It ended with the formation of the Soviet Union.

During this time of turmoil, revolutionary groups assassinated political leaders and civil servants, and the government responded by executing those they thought were responsible. More than 10 000 people were assassinated or executed. The failure of capitalism and one unsuccessful parliament after another led the Russian people to consider other ideological perspectives.

Communism emerged in the Soviet Union partly as a rejection of liberalism but also as a rejection of a capitalist system based on hereditary wealth and power in which the average citizen was poor, owned very little property, and had little or no autonomy. One Duma after another, followed by the more democratic Provisional Government, showed the people that parliamentary democracy was ineffective and would not bring about any real change.

Copyright Learn Everywhere, Alberta Education. For a more comprehensive timeline click here.

Read in your text Perspectives on Ideology.

pages 164 to 165 - the massacre of Russian workers
pages 168 to 170 - "The Need for Change in Russia"
pages 169 to 170 - "Lenin and the Rise of Communism"
pages 170 to 171 - "Ineffectual Reform"
pages 171 to 172 - "Communism is Established"

As you read, take notes on the following:

What values and beliefs lie behind the ideology of communism?
Why did the Russian people reject liberalism in favour of communism?

Watch this short video that explains the rise to power of two founders of Communist Russia - Lenin and Trotsky. What factors shaped their ideology? What led to the civil war in Russia that eventually established communism?

Lenin and Leninist Thought

Vladimir Lenin at Smolny, 1925.
© Courtesy Scholar's Resource

Lenin is considered to be the father of communist Russia. He was influenced strongly by the ideas of Karl Marx and Frederich Engels, but he developed other theories of his own. His brand of communism, known as Leninism, differs significantly from Marxism. He was the first President of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Marxist theory and Lenin's communism differ. Marx believed that the working class would naturally rise up on their own to take over the means of production. Decades after Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto, Lenin did not see the proletarian revolution happening in Russia. His country was not industrialized, and most people were illiterate peasants.

In most of the Western world, the working class was getting richer and obtaining more rights and political power. Lenin believed that the Russian proletariat or peasant was not achieving its fair share of power. Because most working people laboured for 10 to 12 hours per day, they did not have the time or the education to develop a full understanding of communist theory. At best, they would be able only to organize themselves into trade unions to fight for pay and working conditions. To gain the power over society they deserved, they would need to be led into revolution by a highly disciplined group of intellectuals. This was a divergence from Marxist theory into Leninist communism.

Lenin believed that led by him, his Bolshevik party would lead Russia into a communist society based on egalitarianism. Learn more about how Lenin rejected liberal principles and established a communist dictatorship.

Download, print, and take notes on Lenin here.

How the communists developed their support base

Russia was a huge and mostly rural country with a limited communications network and a high rate of illiteracy. How did the communist government reach the masses to deliver its message about the promise of a socialist state? The communist government used visual images to reach the general population with a number of simple messages. These simple, colourful posters achieved several goals.

To consolidate power, the government identified the enemies of communism, provided educational messages about hygiene, health care, and agricultural production, and encouraged solidarity and support for the communist party. Through these posters, the communists encouraged the peasants and factory workers to support the communist movement and its promise for a fairer world.

After considering the context in which Soviet communism developed, think about the issue question:

To what extent was resistance to liberalism justified in Russia?

10. Communism in the Soviet Union

Although the Communist Revolution began with the ideas of collective responsibility, cooperation, and equality for all, the Soviet Union soon deteriorated into a totalitarian state in which individuals had few rights and freedoms, especially under Lenin's successor.

Using the same techniques of dictatorship, Stalin consolidated total control over the Soviet Union. He implemented collectivized farms, nationalized industry, and was responsible for a series of Five-Year Plans that set ambitious targets for industrial and agricultural production.

Stalin's plans for industry and agriculture led to protests by many of the original communist founders of the USSR who felt his version of socialism was far removed from the vision they held. He used the state police increasingly to control the population. The Great Purge of the 1930s led to the arrest, execution, and/or imprisonment in forced labour camps of many senior party members. Forced labour camps were used for those who disagreed with Soviet policies.

How do the characteristics of communism above differ from the practice of Lenin and Stalin in the Soviet Union?

Joseph Stalin

Stalin came to power after Lenin became disabled by a stroke. He dismantled Lenin's New Economic Policy that had allowed for the ownership of private property and the profit motive. To achieve his objectives, he replaced Lenin's policies with the enforced collectivization of agriculture, the command economy, and a far more extensive use of state sanctioned force.

Deaths due directly to Stalin's policies are estimated in the millions, not including those who died from famine. After Stalin's death, the communist party maintained control of almost all aspects of people's lives.

Read "Living with Communism and Nazism" and "Nazi Eugenics" on pages 179 to 185 in your text Perspectives on Ideology.

As you read, take notes on the following:

How did the Soviet Union reject liberalism?
How did Stalin maintain total control over the people?
How did the command economy reject liberal economic principles?

Review the difference between Marxism and Leninism and Stalinism - which took Marxist ideas and adapted them to Russian society. It is important to understand the difference between the theory of communism (Marxism) and the practice in certain societies.

Read

The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia by Orlando Figes
The Kulak's Daughter by Gabrielle Goldstone

11. Life in the Soviet Union

What was life like for the average person in the Soviet Union?

The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (or CCCP) ruled from 1917 until 1991. During this time, the people saw many changes to their way of life. In countries with liberal forms of government, citizens elect leaders to reflect their desires, but the Soviet Union was a dictatorship by the communist party. The Communist Party was led by various leaders, each with hid own approach. Lenin was a revolutionary who promoted collectivization and central planning to ensure communist success. His successor, Joseph Stalin, used terror and force to maintain control. Their different approaches had strong effects on the daily life of the people.

As you read about how communism was practiced in the Soviet Union, compare those actions to the theory of communism as presented below.

Centrally-Planned/Command Economy

The economy, based on the the collectivist values of economic equality and collective interest, was one of the key differences between life in the former Russia and life in the communist Soviet Union. The Soviet economy was based on state ownership of the means of production; the state owned the land and capital and planned how economic activities such as farming and industry operated. Citizens did not own property or work for the profit motive.

Under a command economy, everyone worked for the good of the whole. Private property was gradually abolished and everyone was guaranteed employment. Although it meant that everyone received some income, it also caused great unrest, especially among the kulaks, a class of land-owning farmers who lost their land when Stalin initiated his infamous collectivization policy.

Collectivization was one of the most profound changes in the lives of most citizens. Russia had a long tradition of collective farming in one form or another, but under communist rule, large communes were established in which individuals no longer owned their own land or profited from their individual labour. (Read more... )

Stalin's initial efforts to collectivize farming led to a massive famine, called the Holodomor, in which millions perished.

Industrialization

By the early 1900s, Russia was far behind the remainder of Europe in industrialization. Most of the nations in Europe had developed mines and factories and transportation systems to ship their products within their borders and abroad; the Russian economy was based almost entirely on unmechanized agriculture. Under communist rule, the USSR began an ambition program of modernization.

Consider these two charts to the left. What do they tell you about the success of central planning over time in the USSR?

Lenin's Economic Policy
Stalin's 5 Year Plans

Lenin's New Economic Policy

Watch Industrialization and the Five Year Plans Under Stalin

Political Control

On the previous page, you learned how the communist party spread its message through the use of posters. The Soviets, similar to the Nazis, developed programs of indoctrination and propaganda to support and control the people. Other techniques included

extensive local, regional, and national organization
secret police using terror as a weapon
establishment of professional, cultural, and youth groups that supported the leader, often with forced participation
redirection of popular discontent (use of scapegoats) (In the Soviet Union, the kulaks and the church were often blamed for the problems faced by the people.)

Courtesy Sovietposters.com
© Liberated woman - build up socialism!
1920s Poster

Propaganda, Censorship, and Indoctrination were used extensively. The central government controlled the media. Inaccurate reports of Soviet success and news articles about the supposed "failure" of capitalism were common in Soviet newspapers and on television. Novels and articles that portrayed the Soviet government in an uncomplimentary light were banned. The school curricula promoted the values of communism.

Women were appealed to through the promotion of their status as equal members of society.

Youth were essential to the Soviet Communists. Similar to the Nazis, they knew that control of the young was a key element to success. The Communist Youth League or Komsomol was formed under Lenin. Young people aged 14 to 28 were encouraged to join this organization while younger children could join the Pioneers. By the 1970s, Komsomol had tens of millions of members. Nearly two-thirds of the present adult population of Russia once belonged to the organization.

Give me four years to teach the children and the seed I have sown will never be uprooted.

-Lenin

Secret Police

The Cheka, or secret police, was established in 1917 to arrest "enemies of the state"-those who protested communist party rule. Later, this became the KGB, which employed thousands of people as informants, police, and guards in prisons and labour camps. By the mid-1980s, there were an estimated 500 000 KGB agents and 2 million volunteer informants. Internal passports meant that citizens were monitored as they moved around Russia. The "labour book" required by all adults was a record of work history and was held by the employer, preventing worker mobility.

Elections

Participation in elections was controlled. Although non-communists could run for office, this was only with the approval of the Communist Party. In early elections, voting was done with a show of hands with the idea that people should declare their views openly. This led to low voter turnout. Later, elections were by secret ballot, but with only one candidate on the ballot. Those in favour of the candidate dropped the ballot into a box unmarked-those not in favour had to mark the ballot which would make their view public to the polling officials who could then report them to the secret police. Official voter turnout was 98%, but much lower in reality.

Civil Rights

In theory, each of the four constitutions of the Soviet Union guaranteed citizens rights to employment, leisure, health care, housing, education, and old age care. They were to have equality of gender and freedom of conscience, speech, religion, the press, and assembly, as well as protection of privacy. Literacy increased and women experienced great gains toward equality under Soviet rule. However, many rights were upheld only as long as they were consistent with Communist goals.

Dissent

Dissent was an integral part of the process when the USSR was first founded, but later any criticism of state policy was considered anti-Soviet and punishable by imprisonment or death. Notable dissidents Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (a novelist) and Andrei Sakarov (inventor of the Soviet H-bomb) were able to get their messages about oppression in the Soviet Union to the outside world. Solzhenitsyn believed that the Soviets could not rule without the threat of imprisonment and its economy could not succeed without the use of forced labour camps. He wrote about his experiences as a prisoner in one of these camps and conducted research about the camps. His book, The Gulag Archipelago, was published through the underground press or samizdat, and it was published in the West. He was exiled from the Soviet Union. Sakarov protested the build-up of weapons and believed that the threat of world destruction by nuclear war was very real. His essay, Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom, was published in samizdat and in the West. He continued to protest against Soviet military expansion and advocate for human rights. As a result, he was held under house arrest for many years.

Read "Communism in the Soviet Union" on pages 179 to 181 in your text Perspectives on Ideology.

As you read, take notes on the following:

How did the Soviet Union reject liberalism politically and economically?
What values and beliefs lie behind the ideology of communism?
What techniques of dictatorship were used to maintain control?

View an excellent PBS presentation on Soviet Propaganda here

Read The Gulag Archipelago by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.

12. Propaganda

Propaganda is the deliberate use of words and/or images to give a certain message. Propaganda is used frequently by governments and other organizations to convince people that a certain idea, policy, or cause is correct or advantageous. It can include deceptive or distorted information that is spread systematically through the media.

German Poster, 1918

Bolshevism brings war, unemployment, and famine. © Association for the Fight against Bolshevism
Courtesy United States Library of Congress

Propaganda is used frequently by totalitarian regimes to convince people to follow them.

Propaganda can be spread through news articles, television reports, posters, speeches, billboards, radio, and the Internet. It can include the written word, moving images, and visual representations.

Both the Nazis and the Soviets were masters of propaganda. Consider the two posters. What messages are they promoting? What techniques are used? What ideological perspectives do they promote?

Soviet Poster, 1930

Proletarians of the world, stand up and fight for the overthrow of Capitalism! Fight for the victory of Communism! Words on helmet:
War Against the USSR
© CCCP State Press, 1930 Courtesy Swarthmore College

Read "Controlling the Population through Propaganda" pages 185 to -186 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

REVIEW: How to detect bias and propaganda

13. Conflicting Ideologies

Bomb Shelter © Image courtesy Distributed Learning Resources Branch

When World War II ended, the Nazi regime was destroyed fundamentally, but the communist Soviet Union was still strong. As the map of Europe was redrawn to reflect the victories of the Allies, including capitalist Western Europe, the United States, and the Soviet Union, two distinct spheres of influence evolved driven by very different ideological beliefs.

Conflict between the two superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union dominated world politics from 1945 until 1990 when the Soviet Union collapsed. During this period, capitalism and communism competed. Each side tried to prove that its political and economic system was better at achieving national goals and meeting the needs of their citizens. Economic influence and propaganda were used to promote support for both sides.

Not only did the two sides try to become powerful in terms of influence and wealth, they also built up huge arsenals, supposedly to defend themselves in case of attack from one another. Also, nuclear weapons were built and stockpiled, and the possibility of a nuclear attack that could destroy the entire world brought fear to people everywhere, including neutral or non-aligned nations. The sketched image to the left shows a bomb shelter built by an American family to protect itself in the case of a possible nuclear war.

Face-to-face conflict also occurred in many parts of the world in which the militaries of small nations were supported with weapons and personnel from both the Soviet Union and the United States.

In this section, you will explore the conflicts that occurred during the twentieth century between the two world superpowers of United States and Soviet Union.

Watch this 2 minute review of Communist ideology before beginning this section.

As you read the pages that follow, considering the section question:

How did conflict between opposing ideologies shape our modern world?

14. The Cold War Begins

You just examined the reasons and actions for Hitler's rise in Germany during the interwar years and learned how Russia emerged from a brutal civil war as a communist nation. By the 1920s, the Soviet Union was experimenting with extreme collectivism both politically and economically. Many western countries, including Canada and the United States feared communism, as it rejected all liberal principles, including capitalism and democracy.

In fact, any form of collective action taken by groups in North America between the great wars led to immediate fears of a communist uprising. This paranoia was often a perception rather than a fact and is often referred to as 'the red scare' after the red flag of the Soviet Union. As a result, many liberal societies behaved illiberally in their attempt to erase any possibility of communism. This reactionary behaviour intensified throughout the Cold War.

Please watch the following video explain why the Cold War began? :

Read about the First Red Scare in your textbook Perspectives on Ideology on pages

Watch this review of McCarthyism, an illiberal movement in the United States during the 1950s. In the name of rooting out communism, it violated individual rights and freedoms of citizens. You will revisit this topic again in a later unit.

Why call it a Cold War?

During World War II, ideological differences between the West and the Soviet Union were put aside in their collective efforts to stop the spread of Nazism. Once this common enemy was defeated, fissures or cracks in this alliance began to grow.

From the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, the superpowers of the United states and the Soviet Union and their allies engaged in a "cold" war, which was unlike a "hot" war in which direct fighting on each other's soil occurs.

The Cold War included a continuous state of political conflict, military tension, and economic competition that was characterized by military coalitions, the deployment of the conventional military, the nuclear arms race, espionage, proxy wars, propaganda, and a competition to see who could become the most technologically sophisticated. This included the Space Race, a competition to see who could dominate outer space.

The Cold War was fought in a number of different ways. Study the strategies used by both sides to attain ideological dominance below.

Photograph of Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin at Yalta

Yalta Accords

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin met at Yalta in February 1945 to discuss their joint occupation of Germany and plans for postwar Europe.

Courtesy Wikipedia, from U.S. National Archives and Records Administration

Near the end of World War II, the victors of the war met to decide on a course of action. Sir Winston Churchill of Great Britain, Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt of the United States held a conference in Yalta where they re-drew the map of Europe based on their victory. Another goal was to guarantee the principle of self-determination to ensure that each nation would decide on its own future through free elections.

One of the key purposes of the meeting was to ensure Germany would never regain its power. This meant dealing with the question of how to partition Germany among the allies. The Soviet Union blamed Germany for suffering their catastrophic losses in World War I and II. At the same time, Stalin's troops were liberating Nazi controlled Eastern Europe. However, ideological differences began to creep into negotiations. Stalin wanted a buffer between Russia and the western capitalist democracies. He saw the solution as forcing his recently liberated neighbors to adopt communism.

Read "The Yalta Accords" on page 237 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

Watch this 6 minute video on Origins of the Cold War.

The Division of Germany

In terms of how to deal with Germany, the allies decided to divide the country among themselves. This eventually turned Germany and the city of Berlin, the capital, into four and later two zones of occupation or ideologies.

For 45 years, Germany would be a geographic symbol of the ideological conflict between the Soviet Union and the West known as the Cold War.

Descent of the Iron Curtain

The phrase 'iron curtain' was used throughout the Cold War as a metaphor for the hardline dictatorships that existed in Eastern Europe, largely under Soviet control. The term was first used in a speech from Prime Minister Churchill in response to Stalin's expansionism between 1945-1946. Read an excerpt from his speech below.

"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.

Winston Churchill - March 5, 1946

You can hear the entire speech here.

Berlin Blockade

The armed station guarding East Berlin from West Berlin

Berlin, a large industrial city in central Germany, was divided into four zones of occupation after the war.

Germany was divided into East and West Germany with East Germany now under communist rule. Berlin was a divided city located in one portion of a divided country. (See map, page 246 of your text.)

Stalin feared the capitalist influence of the West; in June 1948, he blocked incoming traffic of all kinds into West Berlin. Thus, the 2.1 million people in West Berlin could obtain no supplies from their country, West Germany. The US and allies replied with the Berlin airlift in which a steady stream of airplanes brought food and heating fuel into Berlin. At its height, a plane was landing in Berlin every three minutes.

After eleven months, Stalin lifted the blockade, but by then the stage was set for ongoing conflict between the superpowers.

The dividing line between east and west became an armed barrier between the two areas of Europe. Sir Winston Churchill, a powerful and influential public speaker, called this divide the iron curtain because it represented a division not just of territory but of ideologies.

The Berlin Airlift:

The "Candy Bomber":

Suggested Resources

Although you and your fellow high school students were not born while the Cold War was occurring, your parents and grandparents will probably remember the tensions during that period of history. Talk to them about what it was like to live during the Cold War! An excellent Academy Award winning documentary on the Cold War era is Fog of War. (This link is to its official website.)

Read ""After Yalta: The Cold War" on pages 238-240 in your text Perspectives on Ideology.

As you read about the Cold War, take notes on the following:

How did the conflicting ideologies of communism and liberalism lead to the Cold War?

Please watch the following video explain the Cold War:

15. Expansionism and Containment

Before World War II, the Nazi government adopted an expansionist ideology. It was the German dream of taking over Europe and the world that led other nations to declare war on Germany, but it took nearly six years for the Allied forces to halt the German advance.

Expansionism is not a new activity. Recall what you learned about imperialism in Social Studies 10-1; historically, nations have fought to expand their power and influence while others have battled to prevent this from happening.

The same was true during the Cold War.

The Marshall Plan

At the end of World War II, Europe lay in ruins. The cost of rebuilding it was enormous. The United States feared that poverty-stricken post-war Europe was vulnerable to communist takeover.

In June 1947, US Secretary of State George Marshall announced the Marshall Plan, a European program of reconstruction with economic assistance from the United States. Under the plan, the United States provided aid to prevent starvation, repaired damaged areas, and began to rebuild the European economy. Aid under the Marshall Plan was offered to all European nations. To receive this aid, nations had to agree follow liberal economic principles, including deregulating prices, eliminating trade restrictions, and preventing the nationalization of industry. The Soviet Union refused any help.

Please watch the following video explain containment and the Marshall Plan:

For an interesting overview of the Marshall Plan, look at this site designed to celebrate its fiftieth anniversary.

Truman Doctrine

The Marshall Plan had two goals: to contain the spread of communism in Western Europe and to stabilize the world according to liberal democratic principles. The Marshall Plan was one aspect of the Truman Doctrine, an American strategy under US president Harry Truman who, with others in his government, believed that the Soviet Union would continue to expand its territory. If one nation fell under communist control, others would fall like a row of dominoes. The fear of this domino effect led the United States to develop alliances with other nations and to establish economic and military policies of containment.

Please watch the following video explain Truman's Speech:

While the Shadow Lengthens
© Edwin Marcus, 1948.
Courtesy U.S. Library of Congress

The 1948 cartoon shows western Europe under the looming shadow of the threatening Soviet Union, as symbolized by a bear while the Marshall Plan off in the distance promises hope.

The Soviet Response: Molotov Plan and COMECON

Joseph Stalin saw the Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine as an anti-communist maneuver. The Soviets established their own program of economic aid called the Molotov Plan and offered it to countries under its influence. The Molotov Plan included bilateral trade agreements with socialist countries such as Poland and East Germany. COMECON (the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance) was constructed to compete against the Marshall Plan. As a result, Europe was divided into two distinct spheres of influence, each dominated by one of the superpowers.

Read about Expansionism and Containment on pages 241 to 246 of your text, Perspectives on Ideology.

Literal Containment: The Berlin Wall

Berlin was finally divided with a wall in 1961. The Soviets erected the armed barrier as a way to stop East Berliners from crossing into the liberal West Berlin. A symbol of the ideological divide between communism and democratic capitalism, it was literally torn down by Germans in November 1989.

Look at the maps below. Were Truman, Marshall, and other American leaders correct in their belief that the Soviets were expanding their sphere of influence?

Not all nations accepted communist control. Many countries tried to fight against the Soviets, but they were unsuccessful.

Read about these liberation movements in "Breaking Free of the Iron Curtain" on pages 247 to 248 of your text, Perspectives on Ideology.

As you read about expansionism and containment, take notes on the following:

Was it understandable why Stalin wanted to impose communism in Eastern Europe?
How did the United States attempt to promote liberal principles in response?

As mentioned earlier in this section, the United States government attempted to contain and eliminate communist as an ideology within their own borders. To do so, the government embarked on an illiberal period called McCarthyism.

16. Alliances

The Marshall Plan and the Molotov Plan were government-sponsored strategies to offer economic aid to countries that agreed to follow certain ideological principles. Military and political alliances were also important during the Cold War, and reflected the growing ideological divide between America and the Soviet Union. As the nations of the world gravitated to one power or the other, tension increased.

One way for the United States to contain communism was through a defensive alliance with Western Europe and Canada.

Formed in 1949, NATO, short for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, was an alliance of nations that supported liberal democracy. It began as a political organization, but after the Berlin Blockade, the nations of Europe felt they needed military support. The nations of Western Europe, including much of Scandinavia, as well as United States and Canada were all members. France later withdrew from NATO and began to build its own military, although it supported NATO in many instances, including the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Courtesy of Wikipedia, Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0

In response, the Soviet Union formed their own alliance of communist countries in 1954 with the Warsaw Pact. Officially named the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance, the Warsaw Pact was an alliance of eight eastern European countries, which came into effect in the mid-1950s and was dissolved when the Soviet Union collapsed.

This map from 1973, shows the NATO members in blue (except for Canada and the United States) shown in blue, with members of the Warsaw Pact in red. The non-aligned countries are in grey. Yugoslavia, although communist, left the Soviet sphere in 1948, while Albania was only a Warsaw Pact member until 1968.

Between 1945 and 1991, most of Europe was divided between these two alliances.

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, most of Eastern Europe joined NATO. After the World Trade Center attacks of 2001, NATO has changed the focus of its operations towards collective defense for its remaining members.

Please watch the following video explain alliances:

NORAD

Another lasting alliance of the Cold War is NORAD, the North American Defence Agreement signed in 1957 between the United States and Canada. The two countries joined forces to defend air space around North America, in case of Soviet attack. Today it is still active and headquartered out of Colorado Springs, Colorado. Used after September 9/11 attacks, the agreement was renewed in 2009.

Watch this film 'Your Civil Defense' Video from the 1960s that highlights this joint-defense system.

Read and watch the video on NORAD's recent concerns over Russian threats today.

Non-Alignment Movement

As a result of the pressure put on the nations of the world, alliances were formed. Some nations did not want to form alliances with either superpower. They wanted the freedom to choose their own political and economic paths, and they did not want to find themselves embroiled in a world war or regional conflict as a result of their ties to a superpower. Many of these countries were former colonies who wanted to sever the ties to their former colonial masters.

From this, the Non-alignment Movement or NAM emerged in what was known as the "Third World" during the Cold War-nations primarily in Asia and Africa that were not aligned with either superpower. Today, this term has been replaced with "developing world" with far different connotations.

As the nations of the world gravitated to one power or the other, tension increased.

Consider the maps on page 249 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

Consider the following questions based on the maps on page 249:

How did geography affect the spread of ideologies? Think spheres of influence.
What happened to the former European colonies between the end of World War II and 1982? Why?

Please watch the following video explain NATO:

Please watch the following video explain NATO and the Warsaw Pact:

17. Arms Race and Threat of Nuclear War

Deterrence was a strategy used by both superpowers during the Cold War. Each country threatened serious retaliation if it was attacked. The deterrence theory held that neither would attack first if they were afraid of the repercussions.

Various actions can be used to deter nations from making the first strike. Threat of economic sanctions and conventional warfare can deter others. Weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons, are a key component in the strategy of deterrence.

Mutually assured destruction was an important aspect of deterrence during the Cold War. Both the United States and the Soviet Union knew that, if one nation used a nuclear bomb on the other, retaliation would include a reciprocal nuclear attack that would ensure the destruction of both nations-and possibly the entire world. They were not prepared to risk a full-scale nuclear war.

Please watch the following video explain arms race:

Nuclear Proliferation

The first and only nuclear weapons ever used in the history of warfare were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, by the United States near the end of World War II. The bombs led to the surrender of Japan and the end of World War II in Asia.

Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute effects killed somewhere between 150 and 240 thousand people, with half the deaths occurring on the first day of the bombing and the remainder occurring later from effects of the bomb, radiation sickness, and other injuries. Later, more have died from various kinds of cancers attributed to exposure to radiation released by the bombs. After seeing the devastating potential of nuclear weapons, both the United States and the Soviet Union built and stockpiled nuclear weapons.

At the height of the arms race, the two superpowers owned tens of thousands of nuclear weapons with the power to kill every person in the world many times over.

The image to the right is a poster from the former Soviet Union produced during the Cold War; it states, "Better off proactive today than radioactive tomorrow."

Although both the Soviets and the Americans were developing more powerful nuclear weapons, both sides blamed the other for the arms race and publicly advocated for disarmament, or a reduction in the arms build-up. Apparently, what they meant by "disarmament" was for the other side to disarm while they continued to create their own weapons!

Please watch the following video explain terrifying true scale of nuclear weapons:

Deterrence Today

Both the United States and the Russian Federation continue to own nuclear weapons. France, Great Britain, and China also own nuclear weapons. These five countries have all signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, an agreement in which they agree to work towards disarmament and use nuclear technology only for peaceful means. India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea also have "the bomb", but none have signed the non-proliferation treaty.

In today's world, the build-up of nuclear weapons in North Korea is an example of deterrence. North Korea is a small, poverty-stricken communist dictatorship with a terrible human rights record. North Korea also has tested nuclear weapons. Because of the threat that the North Koreans might use their nuclear power to attack, other nations may hesitate to use any kind of action against them.

The Arms Race

Watch this review video of the Arms Race during the Cold War.

Weapons of Mass Destruction

Watch this video on how the Cold War arms race led to weapons of mass destruction.

Read the following from your text Perspectives on Ideology.

Robert McNamara's speech about mutual deterrence on page 252
"Cold War Hysteria" on pages 261 to 262
"The Threat of Nuclear War" on pages 263 to 264

Watch the 1982 Academy Award wining 25-minute movie If You Love This Planet from the National Film Board of Canada.

If You Love This Planet by Terre Nash, National Film Board of Canada

For a comprehensive visual history of the development of the nuclear bomb in the United States, including video footage, visit sonicbomb.

18. The Cuban Missile Crisis

"Okay, Mr. President, let's talk."
Click on image for larger view

Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. In 1959, Fidel Castro and his party threw out the US-backed ruling dictatorship and established a communist government. In 1961, a CIA-trained force of Cuban exiles, with the support of the United States, tried to invade Cuba in what is known as the Bay of Pigs incident. They were defeated by the Soviet-trained Cuban military in three days.

Cuba, fearing another invasion, set up nuclear missiles with the aid of the Soviet Union. American military intelligence observed the missiles being set up; this led to the Cuban Missile Crisis, an escalation of tension that pushed the world as close to nuclear war as it has even been.

The crisis occurred in October 1962. The United States demanded that the missiles be withdrawn. The Soviets replied that the missiles were defensive only and did not have the power to reach US territory. After two weeks of extreme global strain, US President John F. Kennedy and the Secretary General of the United Nations reached an agreement with the Soviets in which USSR agreed to dismantle the missiles in exchange for the US promise that it would not invade Cuba.

Brinkmanship occurs when one side tries to push the other as far as possible without giving up anything to the enemy.

Read "Brinkmanship" on pages 254 to 255 of your text of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

Watch this video to review the causes and impact of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Please watch the following video explain public reaction to the Cuban Missile Crisis:

19. Détente

"My disarmament plan is better than your disarmament plan!"
© by Paul Conrad, Denver Times
Image Courtesy Paul Conrad

The Cuban Missile Crisis showed both superpowers how dangerously close they had come to nuclear war. They had to rethink their positions for the security of all.

The cartoon on this page depicts U.S. President Kennedy arguing with Soviet Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev at the United Nations while missiles are launched overhead.

The mid-1960s to 1979 signified a time of "cooling off" of tensions in the Cold War. This time period, known as détente, showed that countries with differing ideological perspectives can use diplomacy to achieve some cooperation.

The Cold War was an expensive war although it did not involve actual combat. The arms race and the space race were costing a lot of money. Efforts to maintain spheres of influence around the world meant that each government was using economic aid, intelligence operations, and military expertise in many nations to maintain its power and influence. The Soviets hoped that a "cooling off" period would allow them to trade with western Europe, which would lead to economic growth.

As well, the Soviet Union was experiencing conflicts with China, which caused concern. USSR hoped improved relations with the US would lead to a a more peaceful existence. Soviet President Khrushchev promoted the idea of peaceful coexistence, a theory that communist and capitalist nations could live together peacefully, without one side trying to destroy the other. The idea of peaceful coexistence was meant to reduce hostilities between the two superpowers by convincing the United States that the Soviet Union did not have a goal of world domination.

During this period of reduced tension, many conferences and summits were held and treaties and agreements were signed, including agreements about disarmament. Détente ended with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the coming to power of US President Ronald Reagan who was elected on a platform of opposition to détente.

Read "Détente and Treaties" on pages 256 to 257 including the boxed text on the Nuremberg Laws on page 190 of your text Perspectives on Ideology,

Pay particular attention to the timeline of non-proliferation treaties on the bottom of the two pages.

See the United States Department of State educational resources on détente.

The period of détente officially ended in 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. This would have lasting impacts for the region, and the world in the 21st Century.

Please watch the following video explain Soviet War in Afghanistan-resistance, casualties & sanctions:

Please watch the following video explain war & aid: Soviet legacy mixed in Afghanistan 30 years from invasion:

20. Proxy Wars

"One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter."

The statement reveals the the perspectives each side has in a conflict and that the cause one person sees as illegitimate is seen as the pursuit of freedom by another.

All over the world during the Cold War as the two superpowers battled for supremacy, they fueled wars on the ground in countries far away. They supported guerilla warfare, assassination attempts, funding for mercenaries, and overthrow of both elected and non-elected governments.

Many of these nations had been colonized during the Age of Imperialism. Others had been oppressed by neighbouring nations. These people wanted the freedom to choose their own forms of government, and after World War II, they had been promised self-determination.

Liberation movements occurred all over the world. Both the United States and the Soviet Union wanted to obtain the allegiance of these nations. USSR and US became involved in providing funding, military supplies, and human expertise to nations that were already allied with the opposing power or nations that were non-aligned.

When opposing powers use third parties as substitutes for fighting each other directly, a "proxy war" results. As the global media reported on the actions of the superpowers, people around the world, including those in the superpower nations, began to challenge the actions of the United States and the Soviet Union. If nations were entitled to elect their own governments democratically, what business did the superpowers have of interfering? Furthermore, when the superpowers were sending their own young men and women to fight in places such as Afghanistan and Vietnam, citizens protested the loss of life. Protest by citizens had a part in the involvement of the superpowers in the affairs of other nations.

Read "Proxy Wars and Liberation Movements" on pages 258 to 260 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

Watch this video to learn more about the proxy war in Korea as well as Vietnam.

Learn about different proxy wars by watching the videos below.

Was the containment of communism ultimately successful?
What were the costs and benefits of fighting these proxy wars?

The Korean War	The Korean War:5 Things to know	Civilians	80 Years later

	The Vietnam Conflict	Vietnam War- Common Tactics	The My Lai Massacre is retold by only survivor

Proxy War in Nicaragua

21. The End of the Cold War

The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union, which began in 1989.

Other Cold War Events
Canada in the Cold War

Illegals Program Arrests

The Russian Spies Living Next Door: Thom Patterson, CNN

August 1945	June 1948-May 1949	November 1956	June-August 1968	1972 and 1979	1980
Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki	Berlin Air Drop	Hungarian Revolution	Prague Spring	SALT 1 and SALTII	Lech Walesa

Canadian Events during the Cold War

Forced Relocation of the Inuit 1972 Summit Series (hockey) Tommy Douglas & RCMP Canadian Caper/Iranian Hostage Crisis Cold War Peacekeeping 1980 Olympic Boycott

Forced Relocation of the Inuit   1972 Summit Series(hockey) Tommy Douglas & RCMP

Canadian Caper/Iranian Hostage Crisis Cold War Peacekeeping        1980 Olympic Boycott

22. Ideological Conflict within Liberal Society

In the previous two sections, you learned about the impact of conflicting ideologies on individuals, groups and the world. Now that the Cold War is over, what are some other ways ideologies come into conflict within liberal societies?

American economist and philosopher Frances Fukayama wondered this when he wrote his book The End of History and the Last Man:

"What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government."

Frances Fukayama

Recent conflicts have proved him wrong.

In our world today, there is a great deal of diversity, not only in race, language, and culture but also in ideological perspectives. Many people and communities continue to hold various beliefs and values that conflict with liberal principles. They may value economic equality over the individual pursuit of profit.

They may consider the well-being of the group (the collective) over the rights of the individual. They may have religious beliefs that contradict or conflict with the individual rights provided in a liberal society. Alternatively, some believe that the environment has to be protected at the expense of private property ownership or economic freedom. These differences lead to conflicting perspectives in a liberal society.

As you learned in Unit One, ideological perspectives are based on individual and collective beliefs and values. In this section, you will explore reasons why some ideas and beliefs come into conflict with modern liberalism. You will continue to examine other challenges to modern liberalism in Unit Five and Seven.

Take notes about how different ideological perspectives create conflict in contemporary society.

Always consider the section question:

How do certain ideas and beliefs challenge our liberal society?

23. Aboriginal Perspectives and Liberalism

As you have learned in your Social Studies education, the worldview of many Aboriginal peoples of the world is collectivist in nature.

People from many cultures, including Canadian First Nations and Inuit peoples, see themselves as individuals, but they also view themselves as just one component of their communities and the natural world. This worldview includes the a belief in collective responsibility and cooperation. Ownership of private property is historically incomprehensible as the land is not seen as something that can be "owned" but rather as something that is to be shared and respected. Membership in a larger whole provides Aboriginal people with a sense of identity and meaning. In many ways, Aboriginal collective thought is at odds with the principles of liberalism.

Since contact, liberalism has been imposed on Aboriginal people. When the first colonists arrived in North America, they imposed their political and economic systems on Aboriginal people. Land was parceled out and purchased by settlers, with reservation land provided for First Nations peoples.

Residential schools were established with the idea that imposing a liberal values would allow First Nations, Metis and Inuit people greater opportunities in Canada. This was not the case.

Even with the adoption of modern liberalism in Canada during the 20th Century, it took until 1960 for Aboriginals to be granted suffrage, or the right to vote. Regardless, the last residential school did not close until 1996. For most of Canada's history, citizenship was based on the degree to which Indigenous people adopted liberal beliefs and property. The recent Truth and Reconciliation Commission has helped unveil the illiberal and last impact of imposing an ideology on entire groups of people, families and individuals. A challenge for Canadian society is how to reconcile the actions of the past with a positive and restorative future based on trust and respect.

The image to the left, by Dene artist Alex Janvier from Cold Lake, is from a 19-metre diameter ceiling dome in the Canadian Museum of Civilization. The painting reflects common Aboriginal values and philosophies: the circular motif represents the circle of life with its spiritual, physical, human, and natural aspects.

Please watch the following video explain 20th Century Fight for Indigenous Rights & Culture:

Please watch the following video explain We are the Haudenosaunee:

Please watch the following video explain how Nunavut's consensus government works:

Downloadable Copy

Read "Aboriginal Collective Thought" on page 294 to 296 in your textbook, of your text Perspectives on Ideology.
As you read, consider the question:

How does placing group needs above individual needs present challenges to modern liberal society?

As you read, take notes on the following:

What ideas are presented about the rejection of liberalism?
What values and beliefs lie behind Aboriginal collective thought?
To what extent is Aboriginal resistance to liberalism justified?

24. Liberalism and the Environment

"Whale Trashed" Steve Sack, The Minneapolis Star-Tribune, MN
How does the cartoonist portray this issue?

Under the principles of liberalism, people are free to compete with each other economically and to act in self- interest. This competition for wealth and power has brought great riches to some and has led to a consumer culture in much of today's world. Consumerism
brings us many new and interesting products, but many people believe that the continuous manufacture and sale of goods for human use comes at a cost to our environment.

How does environmentalism come into conflict with modern liberalism?

People who believe in environmentalism believe that the non-stop pursuit of wealth needs to be controlled to protect the natural environment for future generations. They believe that one of the essential rights and freedoms all humans should enjoy under liberalism is the right to a healthy and clean environment.

They support legislation that will regulate greenhouse gas emission, reduce pollution, protect endangered species, support sustainable development, and limit the destruction of the natural world. Those who support environmentalism favour a more collectivist approach in which people take collective responsibility for the future of the planet.

Others are skeptical that human activity is harming the environment. They believe that unregulated capitalism has led to unprecedented wealth and health for almost everyone on the planet today. They believe that competition and free-market capitalism have led to better lives for almost everyone alive today. They believe that legislation to protect the environment limits prosperity for all people because it interferes with the very rights and freedoms that have led to the high standard of living we enjoy today.

Please watch the following video explain environmental economy:

Read "Environmentalism" on pages 280 -283 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

Must complete economic freedom and the ability to act in self-interest be sacrificed to protect the planet for future generations?

Are you prepared to give up any of your freedoms to protect the environment?

Challenges to Liberalism: Extremist Perspectives

To be an extremist, one's belief system must lie outside of the normal spectrum of beliefs. Extremism is the belief in actions that are considered unacceptable morally, socially, or politically.

Here is what happened to one airline passenger in an American airport:

"There I was, walking in stocking feet with my hands up. I watched the line of people slowly being herded along as armed guards patted us down. I had to take off my sweater so the female guard could pat me down. Then I went into a chamber where powder came out of the walls. I could see the fear in everyone's faces. And to think, I was in the so-called land of the free. We have given up our freedoms in the name of security, but I don't feel very safe right now."

The attacks on the World Trade Center in New York on September 11, 2001, ignited the War on Terror campaign and led to the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq in 2003 plus a series of foreign policies known as the Bush Doctrine.

Please watch the following video explain remembering 9/11:

Foreign policy under the Bush administration after 2001 emphasized the right of the United States to secure itself aggressively from countries that harboured or gave aid to terrorist groups. This approach is associated with the ideals of international intervention to secure American national interests.

"We will pursue nations that provide aid or safe haven to terrorism. Every nation, in every region, now has a decision to make. Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists. From this day forward, any nation that continues to harbor or support terrorism will be regarded by the United States as a hostile regime."
—George W. Bush in his September 20, 2001, address to the United States Congress

In 2001, as a result of the terrorist challenges to western liberalism, the liberal democracy of the United States passed the Patriot Act, which allowed American authorities to

search all communications such as telephone and e-mail conversations
records such as medical, financial, and any other records
ease restrictions on intelligence gathering in the U.S.
increase the powers of law enforcement and immigration authorities in keeping or deporting immigrants for suspected terrorist related acts

In a country that prided itself on civil liberties, under pressure from extremist groups like al-Qaeda, the U.S. Patriot Act did much to limit those freedoms.

Please watch the following video explain patriot act controversy:

The Canadian government passed similar legislation in 2001, the Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act.

Please watch the following video explain Canada's anti-terror measures:

"Everywhere where power is exercised there needs to be clear limits to its reach, and it is liberals who should be defining them. The war against terror has given governments a new and dangerous rationale for encroaching on civil liberties and limiting personal privacy-often in the name of our own safety. This year the European Parliament was forced to take European governments to the European Court of Justice when they authorized an agreement with the United States to share confidential data on European airline passengers traveling across the Atlantic. As in the United States, many European governments have used the war on terror to fast-track untested biometric technology. If these things make us marginally safer-and there is not a lot of evidence that they do-they do so at a real cost in reduced privacy and liberty.

The war against terror leaves us afraid, and fearful people will listen to governments who tell them they can only be safer when government is more powerful. Benjamin Franklin said that the man who would surrender liberty for a little safety deserves neither. As liberals we need to be on our guard against claims that we can be more secure by being less free."
—Graham Watson, Member of European Parliament, 2004

An area of extremism has been the Taliban in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Taliban is an extremist group that once ruled Afghanistan in a totalitarian manner. After the World Trade Center was destroyed by the extremist group al-Qaeda on 9/11, 2001, the United States removed the Taliban from power by military force. The Taliban had been allowing al-Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden to train their extremist forces there. Canada and many other NATO forces supported the United States in pushing out the Taliban. However, the Taliban have been able to mount a brutal campaign against NATO coalition troops.

During 2008, in the Swat Valley of Pakistan, the Taliban shut down schools. Through an agreement with the Pakistani government, the schools for girls did reopen. But there is still immense pressure on girls not to go to school. Girls face serious harassment as well in Afghanistan. In 2008, some girls were attacked with acid, causing serious injury to their faces for attending school. During the Taliban's rule, girls were banned from attending school. In the 2016/2017 school year, fewer than 45% of students in Pakistan were girls.

Read "Extremism" on pages 410 - 415 in your textbook Perspectives of Ideologies.

Please watch the following video explain safe & sorry-terrorism & mass surveillance:

25. Neoconservatism & Religous Perspectives

Neoconservatism

One significant movement in modern times that resists modern liberalism is the neo-conservative movement. As the name suggests, neo-conservatives (sometimes referred to a "neocons") believe in a new form of conservativism that closely represents classical liberalism.

Neo-conservatives believe strongly in individualism such as:

an unregulated free-market capitalism and limited government.
individuals should pay for these health care and education.
service providers should have the economic freedom to compete for education and health care dollars.
they do not support social programs that protect the poor or disadvantaged.
they do not support those programs that provide assistance to people who have been discriminated against traditionally.
they do not support government policies that promote greater positive freedoms and social or economic equality.
they do not accept that governments should provide services such as health care or education.

Read "Neo-conservatism" on pages 284 to 287 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

You will learn more about neoconservative approaches to the economy in Unit Six.

Religious Perspectives

One fundamental freedom guaranteed under modern liberalism is the right to practise one's own religion.

But when religious practices contradict the rule of law and rights and freedoms for all that have been established to protect the common good, what then?
Where do we draw the line between an individual's right to practise his or her religion and the rights and freedoms associated with liberalism?

As a result, citizens may place their religious beliefs above the "rule of law". This introduces a conflict between liberal society as a whole, and an individual's beliefs. This can lead to conflicting loyalties and controversy in a liberal society. Consider these examples:

Some Alberta Hutterites suggest they will refuse to obtain driver's licences because their religious beliefs prohibit them from having pictures taken of their faces.
Other religious groups such as the Doukhobours believe in placing the needs of the community above those of the individual. They believe that their communities should have the right to own property, but individuals in the community should not.
Some Muslims who consider themselves fundamentalists believe that women must be protected and, therefore, should not have the same freedoms as men.

A religious example that challenges liberalism in Canada is Hutterites.

Please watch the following video explain Hutterites:

Read "Religious Perspectives" on pages 287 to 291 of your text Perspectives on Ideology.

26. UNIT 4 SUMMARY

Unit Four has explored:

resistance to liberalism historically through the development of communism and fascism
examined the conflict between ideologies between the end of World War Two and the fall of the Soviet Union
some examples of resistance to liberalism today through a focus on the issue question

To what extent is resistance to liberalism justified?

Through this study you should now be closer to having your own ideas about why people and their government resist liberal principles and if reasonable for them to do so.

Nazi Germany	Communist Soviet Union	Conflicting Ideologies and International Relations	Contemporary Resistance to Liberalism
rejected liberalism because the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and the aftermath of WWI led to hardship for Germany rejected liberalism because its liberal democratic government was not able to improve the lives of citizens replaced liberalism with fascism and extreme nationalism blamed the Jews for many of their economic problems used techniques of totalitarianism to maintain control led to expansionism and World War II ended with Germany's defeat	rejected liberalism because of beliefs in collectivism rejected liberalism because democratic changes were slow and ineffective in changing the lives of citizens replaced monarchy and limited liberalism with communism blamed land-owning kulaks for many economic problems used techniques of totalitarianism to maintain control led to expansionism and Soviet control of neighbouring nations ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991	Conflict between the competing ideologies of capitalist democratic United States and communist Soviet Union led to international tension. Spheres of influence were increased through diplomatic, economic and military intervention on both sides. Many nations, especially those in the developing world, refused to align themselves with either sphere. Stockpiling of weapons, including weapons of mass destruction, led to mutually assured destruction and world wide fears of global annihilation. The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.	Today, liberalism is challenged by collectivism beliefs including Aboriginal collective thought and environmentalism. Neo-conservatism calls for a return to classical liberalism with limited role for government in protecting positive freedoms and a deregulated free-market economy. Some religious beliefs and values are at odds with the principles of liberalism including the rule of law, the right to own private property, acting in self-interest, and rights and freedoms for all.

Review your notes for this course.

27. SUMMATIVE EXAM 2

Please review all of your notes, readings, and vocabulary you have learned up until this point. Once you feel you are ready, you can attempt your second summative exam of the course. You will need permission to write this exam and you will need to be supervised at your school or campus.

Please let me know if you have any questions!

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Book:	UNIT 4: RESISTANCE TO LIBERALISM

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UNIT 4: RESISTANCE TO LIBERALISM

Table of contents

1. OVERVIEW

Overview: Resistance to Liberalism

This unit has three sections:

2. Introduction

Rejections of Liberalism Introduction

3. Characteristics of Totalitarianism

Characteristics of Totalitarianism

Possible Advantages

Possible Disadvantages

4. Emergence of Fascism

Why did the German people adopt Nazi (fascist) ideologies?

How did Hitler & the Nazi's Gain Power after World War I?

5. Life in Nazi Germany

When you think about Nazi Germany, what images come into your mind?

The Corporate Economy

Techniques of Dictatorship to Maintain Control:

6. QUIZ 4.1: NAZI GERMANY

7. The Holocaust

8. WWII

Expansionism

Appeasement

War is Declared

9. Emergence of Communism in Russia

Emancipation of the Serfs

Russian Revolution of 1905

Failure of Democratic Reforms

Provisional Government

Russian Revolution 1917

Lenin and Leninist Thought

How the communists developed their support base

10. Communism in the Soviet Union

11. Life in the Soviet Union

What was life like for the average person in the Soviet Union?

Centrally-Planned/Command Economy

Industrialization

Political Control

Secret Police

Elections

Civil Rights

Dissent

12. Propaganda

4.1.10 The Use of Propaganda

13. Conflicting Ideologies

14. The Cold War Begins

Why call it a Cold War?

15. Expansionism and Containment

The Marshall Plan

Truman Doctrine

The Soviet Response: Molotov Plan and COMECON

Literal Containment: The Berlin Wall

16. Alliances

NORAD

Non-Alignment Movement

17. Arms Race and Threat of Nuclear War

Nuclear Proliferation

Deterrence Today

18. The Cuban Missile Crisis

19. Détente

20. Proxy Wars

"One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter."

21. The End of the Cold War

22. Ideological Conflict within Liberal Society

23. Aboriginal Perspectives and Liberalism

24. Liberalism and the Environment

Liberalism and Extremism

25. Neoconservatism & Religous Perspectives

Neoconservatism

Religious Perspectives

26. UNIT 4 SUMMARY

Unit Four has explored:

To what extent is resistance to liberalism justified?

27. SUMMATIVE EXAM 2