Lesson 1: The Principles of Learning

4 - Significant Factors in Learning

Efficiency is certainly a familiar theme in our lives. Listen to these words of wisdom.

A stitch in time saves nine.
A penny saved is a penny earned.
Waste not, want not.

Learning is a complex task because a number of variables interact with each other all at once. An understanding of key learning components gives you, the student, an opportunity to use them to your advantage. Learning efficiency should be a special concern of every student. Efficiency means better results with less effort. You do not want to spend hour upon hour studying if you can economize. Let’s take a closer look at some of the components in the learning process.

Transfer

Will learning in one area transfer to learning in other topics? Transfer means the effect of previous learning on later learning or performance. If the prior learning is helpful to later learning, positive transfer has occurred. For example, Heidi learned proper typing skills on an electric typewriter. Later, Heidi completed a computer course and had to type certain commands and responses on the keyboard. Her earlier learning in typing classes was helpful. Transfer has definite value in learning efficiently.

 

Transfer occurs because of close associations between stimuli and responses. As stimuli become more and more similar to each other, the amount of transfer increases. For example, if you have a certain kind of computer at home and one that is very similar at school or work, you will have little trouble in changing from one to the other. Transfer will be high. The highest positive transfer occurs when stimuli and responses of two tasks or situations are identical.

However, all is not positive in transfer. If the prior learning interferes with later learning, negative transfer occurs. For example, Mario learned to drive a car with an automatic gear shift. Then, he was in a situation where he had to drive his brother’s truck with a standard, on-the-floor gear shift. He had trouble learning how to get the truck moving smoothly and to shift gears using a clutch.

Overlearning

When we have learned a skill or a piece of information but continue to practise until we acquire complete mastery, we are overlearning. Overlearning has both advantages and disadvantages. Overlearning reaches a maximum when the learner can understand and explain the material without mistakes or hesitations. Once the learner knows the material thoroughly, any extra time spent reviewing this body of knowledge is time wasted.

 

Mnemonic Devices

Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help the learner remember certain facts. They may appear as formulas, catchwords, or jingles. These techniques encode material to be learned so they trigger one’s memory and the entire package of material is recalled. Here is a common example.

Thirty days hath September
April, June and November;
All the rest have thirty-one
Except February which stands alone.

Here is another little rule that is frequently useful:

“i” before “e” except after “c"

Students can be creative and devise whatever mnemonic device or memory hook is useful to anchor the material they are learning. The disadvantage of mnemonic devices is that students spend too much time trying to make up a trick for remembering a piece of information, and they do not really understand the basic ideas in the material itself.

Latent Learning

The word latent means hidden, present but not visible, concealed. Latent learning is information that becomes evident only when it is being used. Latent learning occurs without reinforcement or maybe without complete awareness that the information is being filed in our memories. However, when reinforcement is given, the information is recalled. For example, a teacher gives a lesson on safety in the wilderness. One of the students in the class does not give the information much attention. But later when a similar real life problem occurs, he suddenly remembers what was said in the classroom lecture.

Learning by Insight

Learning by insight is based on previous experience that is suddenly pieced together in the mind. A sudden connection of relationships or components to an answer occurs, and the solution appears. When insight occurs, the learner has made many connections between relationships. The final link that brings the person to a solution happens after the person quietly ponders a number of different possibilities. For example, you may slave over a math equation for several minutes. Then, you take a closer look at something you have scribbled beside the equation as a possible solution.

Trial and Error Learning

Sometimes learning occurs in a very unstructured manner. Trial and error learning is defined as learning to solve a problem by trying various alternatives until the right solution is found. Sometimes trial and error learning is necessary. The disadvantage is that much time is wasted until the learner stumbles upon the correct answer. It is time consuming and also can be very frustrating The learners must devise ways of keeping track of discarded possibilities so they avoid repeating mistakes.

Mazes are used in experimental work on trial and error learning. A maze is a large box with a series of pathways or hallways. One path is the correct path; other pathways lead to blind alleys or dead ends.

Natural Association

Natural association in learning is sometimes called “belonging” because it implies that one thing seems to belong with another.

Related to the idea of natural association is the notion that we begin with ideas or concepts we know and build hooks or anchors from the new information to the data that has already been successfully stored in our minds. That process builds a bridge between known information and new information.

     

Intensity

Intensity or vividness can have a tremendous impact on learning. Intensity means an experience that is unexpected or that shocks us emotionally makes a lasting impression on us. For example, a stimulus such as a loud noise, a flash of lightning or a near-miss accident is remembered for some time. When a subject is presented to students in an interesting or vivid manner, it will seldom need much repetition to be remembered. Perhaps one disadvantage of intensity is that if the emotional shock is too much for the person, extreme fear may block the learning path.