Siouian

Siouian speakers live in the central Plains region of Canada. The Assiniboine who spoke Siouian moved into this region in the nineteenth century.

The economy of the Assiniboine was based on the seasonal bison hunt. A bison was crucial not only for the food it provided, but also for the many items that were made from the body parts. Goods from buffalo include moccasins, mittens, leggings, shirts, robes, and sinew for sewing. Leg bone scrapers, knifes, hide toboggans, horn spoons, and flasks were also made from buffalo.

The clothing of the Assiniboine was decorated with quills, shells, fur, and feathers, which were sewn into elaborate symbolic designs. Whereas hides in the Parkland area were smoked and tanned a brown colour, the Plains people softened and dried hides in the sun, which gave the leather a white colour. Designs on clothing relate to the environment where a band lives. For example, those bands that lived in proximity to the mountains used geometric shapes.

When a girl reached adolescence she performed rites to signify a transition into adulthood. She isolated herself until she envisioned a spirit or a song, which became a symbol of her individual spiritual identity. An adolescent boy also performed initiation rites. He would spend a period of time proving his worthiness as a fearless protector of his people, and this period would be highlighted by a vision from a guardian spirit. This guardian spirit would provide a gift of a song, dance, amulets, or other objects to grant power to the young man. A family's power was associated with these and other sacred objects. Placed inside a medicine bundle they were hidden by the women of the family and protected. Certain of the sacred objects were renown and prized war booty from raids on enemies. Spiritual "medicine bundles" consisted of magical amulets (feathers, birds' beaks, or oddly shaped stones) wrapped in hide. Every object had a unique significance and called for a special song when its owner exposed it to the light. The medicine bundle gave its owner prestige and was thought to bring him wealth and good fortune.

The Sun Dance, a Blackfoot tradition, was an annual gathering that became more prominent after the introduction of the horse. The ceremony was presided over by a holy woman who had taken the vow of virtue and was highly esteemed in the band. A Sun Dance lodge is constructed for the event. A central pole was erected and hung with offerings to the Great Spirit. This pole was then encircled with ten more poles and the whole structure was covered with leafy branches. A bison skull was then placed at the foot of the central pole to signify that the animal is at the junction between the vertical axis of the creator and the horizontal plane of humankind.

Various Plains tribes had similar spiritual beliefs. The great spirits worshipped were the Sun, the Thunderbird, and the Old Man of the Dawn. The Sioux called them wakan tanka - the greatest sacred ones. The classic Sun Dance involved only a few men who fasted, prayed, and danced from the circle wall of the Sun Dance lodge to the central pole and back. Traditionally, the end of the dance entailed some self-torture with sharp skewers that were forced through the skin of the dancer's back and chest. The Sun Dance was a four-day ritual that honoured the buffalo spirit.

Both men and women joined secret societies. The people in these societies timed the seasonal hunts, choreographed the Sun Dance or organised military strategy. Only men joined warrior societies. The right to wear a Buffalo headdress was granted to the man who, in battle, defeated an enemy in hand-to-hand combat and took his scalp. A warrior with a headdress was entitled to marry and establish a household. A headdress that flowed down to the ground indicates that the wearer is a candidate for chief. In addition to military societies, there were numerous dancing societies. Dancing had social and religious functions, and they were usually performed at the tribe's summer gathering. The dances generally reflected the culture's emphasis on hunting and warfare. One dance, with five men in a line, was specifically for warriors who had never run from the enemy. Another dance paid homage to men noted for their liberal sharing of meat after a hunt. Women's societies among the Blood and Northern Blackfoot were called Motokik. These societies were formed with the most respected women of the band and they would come together prior to the Sun Dance celebrations.

The smoking of ceremonial pipes solidified bonds or decisions. Carved from catlinite, a smooth red stone, the pipes were used in a special ritual, which involved blowing smoke towards each of the four cardinal directions, then skyward and finally to earth. Peace pipe ceremonies also played a part in the spiritual beliefs of the Plains First Nations.

The medicine wheels that are found throughout the Plains region appear to have been used for a period of 5,000 years. Their significance is unknown but it has been speculated that they served as direction markers or as sacred or spiritual sites. The ribstones of medicine wheels are often located on the crest of a hill. A number of these medicine wheels show evidence of hunting rituals having been performed there. Another structure created on the Plains is the petroform. Large rocks are arranged to form the shape of a spirit or an animal, such as Mishikenahbik, the snake Manitou. The purpose of these structures is unknown.