3.5 National Interests Before World War I: MAINE
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3.5 National Interests Before World War I: MAINE
Should nations pursue national interest?
Big Idea:
- How do national interest, foreign policy, and nationalism affect one another?
3.5.1 National Interests Before World War I: MAINE
As you have read on the previous pages, nations pursue their own national interests through a desire for economic prosperity, safety and security, and to promote beliefs and values. However, a nation rarely pursues its national interests without conflicting with other nations pursuing their own interests. When a nation becomes involved in domestic and international events, the experiences shape their foreign policy, nationalism, and national interests.
Take a moment to view the map of Europe (right) at the start of World War I. National interests and the pursuit of these interests drastically changed this map after the end of World War I.
While World War I may appear to have many causes, the three main areas are competing national interests, foreign policies, and nationalism. These three areas can be further broken down using the acronym MAINE.
- Militarism: the support, construction, and maintenance of a strong military, with the intention to use it whenever necessary
- Alliances: an agreement between two or more countries to work together for the benefit of each country
- Imperialism: domination (political, economic, and/or cultural) by one country over another
- Nationalism: pride in one's nation or nation-state
- Economic Interests: a nation's use of its current resources, products for import/export, national employment, and overall economic growth and stability
Before World War I, European nations were very different from each other. Europe contained five powerful nations (Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary), as well as many smaller nations. Some nations, such as Austria-Hungary, were old imperial states made of several ethnic groups. Others (such as Serbia) recently had been created on the basis of national interests. Others, such as Germany and France, used old grudges to focus national loyalties.
The differences between the European nations contributed to competition between them. Competing national interests, foreign policies, and nationalism combined to cause WWI, beginning in 1914 and ending with an armistice in November of 1918.
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High levels of nationalism coupled with competing foreign policies led European countries to resort to the threat of military aggression to get what they wanted. Each European nation within the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia) attempted to outdo the countries from opposing alliances by building up its armed forces. These alliances threatened the balance of power between these European nations, increasing the tensions between them.
This militarism created an arms race among the European nations. Each country tried to outdo the others with the number and kinds of weapons it had, which led to heightened tension among them. With each country heavily armed and aggressively pursuing its national interests, the chances of escalating a minor conflict into a major war was magnified. Prior to World War I, a naval arms race occurred largely between Germany and Britain.
The arms race included new kinds of weapons built in factories and shipyards by the industrialized European nations. The use of weapons such as the machine gun and artillery turned the battlefields of WWI into huge killing fields.
© iStock
European nations sought allies to help them in case a war broke out. When a war breaks out, alliances cause all the member nations to become involved. View an interactive map of how the alliances were a contributing factor to the war.
- The Triple Alliance was a military alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. The agreement was that if one member was attacked, the other members would come to its defence. Later, when World War I broke out, Italy dropped out of the Triple Alliance and joined the Triple Entente, mostly because of promises of territorial gains from the Triple Entente.
- The Triple Entente was a military alliance between Britain, France, and Russia. Britain did not want join in an alliance at first because it wanted to keep a position of isolationism (not getting involved in European affairs). Britain eventually formed the Triple Entente with France and Russia because Germany was increasing its economic and naval strength and because of colonial tensions such as the Moroccan crisis. The agreement was that if one member was attacked, the other members would come to its defence.
Alliances leading up to the First World War
1879
The Dual Alliance
Germany and Austria-Hungary made an alliance to defend themselves from Russia1881
Austro-Serbian Alliance
Austria-Hungary made an alliance with Serbia to stop Russia gaining control of Serbia1882
The Triple Alliance
Germany and Austria-Hungary made an alliance with Italy to stop Italy from taking sides with Russia1894
Franco-Russian Alliance
Russia formed an alliance with France to protect herself against Germany and Austria-Hungary1904
Entente Cordiale
This was an agreement, but not a formal alliance, between France and Britain1907
Anglo-Russian Entente
This was an agreement between Britain and Russia1907
Triple Entente
This was made between Russia, France, and Britain to counter the increasing threat from Germany1914
Triple Entente (no separate peace)
Britain, Russia, and France agreed not to sign for peace separately
World empires and colonies in 1898:
- Pink: Britain
- Blue: France
- Yellow: Spain
- Dark Green: Portugal
- Orange: Netherlands
- Dark Grey: Germany
- Light Green: Ottoman Empire
- Black: Belgium
- Dark Purple: Russia
- Brown: Japan
- Purple: China (Qing Empire)
- Dark Yellow: Austria-Hungary
- Green: Denmark
- Dark Blue: Sweden-Norway
- Light Blue: United States
- Red: Italy
- Light Grey: Other independent countries
You can see by the above map that, at one time, many European countries owned territory around the world. The late 19th century cartoon to the right of the map shows British imperialist and statesman, Cecil Rhodes, standing across Africa, which illustrated his and the British people's desire to control a north-south strip of Africa.
Imperialism occurred when European countries tried to gain control of as many overseas colonies as they could. This created fierce competition for colonial ownership between European imperialist nations, which often led to armed conflict between European countries. Read an example of armed conflict due to imperialism in the Moroccan Crisis (1905 to 1906) below.
The Moroccan Crisis
- The alliance between France and England that resulted from the Fashoda Incident annoyed Germany. Germany was irritated, partly because it feared a military alliance against itself, and partly because Germany had ambitions in Morocco, which France now claimed. An international conference was held to determine ownership of Morocco. The conference decided in favour of France. However, Germany was not yet finished. When French troops were sent to Morocco, Germany sent a gunboat (and later a larger warship) to Morocco to protect German interests there.
- Britain came close to threatening Germany with war if it did not back off. Germany did back off, this time. Once again, Europe had come close to war over colonies, and European relations were becoming increasingly strained.
It is important to keep in mind nationalism and ultranationalism are on a spectrum. Often, nations and their foreign policies meet some of the characteristics of nationalism, but also lean closer toward ultranationalism. View the characteristics of the spectrum listed below.
Nations often take action based on the pursuit of their national self-interest. However, when these actions begin to impact or conflict with other nations (through racism, oppression, removal of rights, or other prejudices), a line is being crossed into ultranationalism. View the tabs below to read about nations and their foreign policies. Consider whether the foreign policies are more nationalist or ultranationalist in nature.
Russia was slowly starting to industrialize. Its national interests were to increase its influence in the oil-rich Middle East and to guarantee free access to the Mediterranean Sea through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus (the narrow water straits that
separated European Turkey from Asian Turkey). This caused a conflict with the Ottoman Empire.
Russia also hoped to increase its leadership over the Slavic peoples in the Balkans. As a result, Russia supported Serbia. This foreign policy caused tensions with Austria-Hungary.
Russia also hoped to increase its leadership over the Slavic peoples in the Balkans. As a result, Russia supported Serbia. This foreign policy caused tensions with Austria-Hungary.
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia
© Library of Congress
Austria-Hungary sought to increase its territory in the Balkans. A rival in the Balkans was the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), where Turkish power was declining. Russia was a more serious contender because it viewed itself as a protector of the Slavic peoples
in the Balkans, including many who were inside Austria-Hungary's borders. Another problem in the Balkans was Slavic
(ethnic group) nationalism. Various areas in the Balkans (Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro) wanted
self-determination and resisted any efforts of domination by Austria-Hungary.
After unification in 1870, Italy was burdened by internal economic problems. Italy sought great-power status in Europe and wanted to ensure its place in the world. Italy also sought to unify regions that were unredeemed, which referred to Italian-speaking
territory that was still part of Austria-Hungary. In addition, Italy sought to increase its prestige and economic national interests by acquiring African colonies.
France was bitter over its embarrassing defeat to Germany in the 1871 Franco-Prussian war. In particular, the loss of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in that war continued to be a sore point for France. France hoped to regain this territory
and to get revenge on Germany. Competing with Germany for colonies in Africa was also a major French national interest.
Following German unification in 1871, Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck was satisfied with the new boundaries of Germany, although some Germans were outside the new
nation. Gaining Alsace-Lorraine from France during the Franco-Prussian War added immensely to German national pride.
Bismarck's main national interest was security. He wanted to secure Germany's new boundaries against any nation that might pose a threat. Germany's national interest was concerned particularly about French revenge for France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian war in 1871 and Russian influence in the Balkans. To ensure its security, German foreign policy attempted to isolate France and to prevent any alliance between France and Russia. Germany also sought a strong ally in Austria-Hungary to overcome any alliance between France, Russia, and Britain.
Germany was also seeking to increase its economic wealth and prestige by gaining overseas colonies, especially in Africa. With this colonial foreign policy, Germany often came into conflict with France and Britain.
Bismarck's main national interest was security. He wanted to secure Germany's new boundaries against any nation that might pose a threat. Germany's national interest was concerned particularly about French revenge for France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian war in 1871 and Russian influence in the Balkans. To ensure its security, German foreign policy attempted to isolate France and to prevent any alliance between France and Russia. Germany also sought a strong ally in Austria-Hungary to overcome any alliance between France, Russia, and Britain.
Germany was also seeking to increase its economic wealth and prestige by gaining overseas colonies, especially in Africa. With this colonial foreign policy, Germany often came into conflict with France and Britain.
Britain maintained a
policy of isolation from European affairs throughout much of the 19th
century (1800s). This began to change with the defeat of France in the
Franco-Prussian war and the emergence of Germany as a growing industrial
and trading power to rival Britain. The changing European balance of power led
Britain to change its policy of isolation and to seek military
alliances against Germany's growing power.
Britain had a large world-wide colonial empire to protect. Britain often came into conflict over its colonies and those of other European nations, especially Germany in Africa.
Britain had a large world-wide colonial empire to protect. Britain often came into conflict over its colonies and those of other European nations, especially Germany in Africa.
The source for much of the competition between European nations was extreme nationalism or ultranationalism. For instance, the emergence of a unified Italy caused many Italians living in territories controlled by Austria-Hungary to demand unification with Italy.
Much German-French rivalry showed that they each thought themselves better than the other. The French were still enraged about the loss of some of their territory (the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine) to Germany during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and the French wanted revenge.
Each European nation's national pride pushed their national interest toward power. They each wanted to have the strongest military, the strongest economy, and control over the most colonies.
The emergence of a unified Germany created problems because other ethnic groups in the Balkans wanted independence (self-determination) from Austria-Hungary.
The Balkan states were referred to as the "Powder Keg of Europe" as pursuit of national self-determination (the ability to govern themselves) led to conflicts between ethnic groups. The Balkan states (Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania) each wanted their independence or self-determination. Serbia, in particular, actually wanted to create a larger state by absorbing all the other Balkan states. At the same time, Austria-Hungary wanted to increase its territory by absorbing all the Balkan states. This created a large amount of tension in the Balkan area.
A significant area for competition was economic supremacy. The graph below shows a comparison of nations involved in World War I and their rates of industrialization as they approached the war. As you can see, the United Kingdom (Britain), the
United States, and Germany all experienced significant increases in industrialization and production prior to World War I.
As you view the tabs that follow, take notes on the conflicting economic interests between nations.
As you view the tabs that follow, take notes on the conflicting economic interests between nations.
- While Britain (and its colonies) had once been the most powerful empire in the world, by 1914, Germany had overtaken Britain in the iron, steel, and automotive industries.
- As Germany’s economy grew and gained strength, Germany also wanted to acquire colonies to get access to cheaper raw materials and additional markets for exports.
- Britain also felt threatened by Germany’s expanding navy fleet. This led to a military arms race and naval dominance.
- France lost two provinces to Germany in 1870, each that produced coal (Alsace-Lorraine). This meant France had to import coal from other countries.
- The need for coal also meant France was in direct competition with Germany in nations such as Morocco to access mineral resources.
- Germany established a railway in the Balkans in 1888.
- Austria wanted control of the Balkans for investment purposes and for the potential for manufactured goods. Austria already controlled most of the Balkans and wanted to keep its multiethnic empire together.
- Russia wanted to control the Balkans since half of Russia’s exports already passed through the area. Russia also wanted a sea port for economic trade.
Video
Watch the following video, which explains the causes of World War I and outlines important events that took place during World War I.
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